docs(ai): add ai branch subjects to public

subjects/ai/backtesting-on-the-sp500/README.md

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+# Backtesting on the SP500
+
+## SP500 data preprocessing
+
+The goal of this project is to perform a Backtest on the SP500 constituents. The SP500 is an index the 500 biggest capitalization in the US.
+
+## Data
+
+The input file are `stock_prices.csv` and:
+
+- `sp500.csv` contains the SP500 data. The SP500 is a stock market index that measures the stock performance of 500 large companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States.
+
+- `stock_prices.csv`: contains the close prices for all the companies that had been in the SP500. It contains a lot of missing data. The adjusted close price may be unavailable for three main reasons:
+
+  - The company doesn't exist at date d
+  - The company is not public, pas coté
+  - Its close price hasn't been reported
+  - Note: The quality of this data set is not good: some prices are wrong, there are some prices spikes, there are some prices adjustments (share split, dividend distribution) - the prices adjustment are corrected in the adjusted close. But I'm not providing this data for this project to let you understand what is bad quality data and how important it is to detect outliers and missing values. The idea is not to correct the full data set manually, but to correct the main problems.
+
+_Note: The corrections will not fix the data, as a result the results may be abnormal compared to results from cleaned financial data. That's not a problem for this small project !_
+
+## Problem
+
+Once preprocessed this data, it will be used to generate a signal that is, for each asset at each date a metric that indicates if the asset price will increase the next month. At each date (once a month) we will take the 20 highest metrics and invest 1$ per company. This strategy is called **stock picking**. It consists in picking stock in an index and try to overperform the index. Finally we will compare the performance of our strategy compared to the benchmark: the SP500
+
+It is important to understand that the SP500 components change over time. The reason is simple: Facebook entered the SP500 in 2013 thus meaning that another company had to be removed from the 500 companies.
+
+The structure of the project is:
+
+```console
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   sp500.csv
+│   |   prices.csv
+│
+└───notebook
+│   │   analysis.ipynb
+|
+|───scripts
+|   │   memory_reducer.py
+|   │   preprocessing.py
+|   │   create_signal.py
+|   |   backtester.py
+│   |   main.py
+│
+└───results
+    │   plots
+    │   results.txt
+    │   outliers.txt
+```
+
+There are four parts:
+
+## 1. Preliminary
+
+- Create a function that takes as input one CSV data file. This function should optimize the types to reduce its size and returns a memory optimized DataFrame.
+- For `float` data the smaller data type used is `np.float32`
+- These steps may help you to implement the memory_reducer:
+
+1. Iterate over every column
+2. Determine if the column is numeric
+3. Determine if the column can be represented by an integer
+4. Find the min and the max value
+5. Determine and apply the smallest datatype that can fit the range of values
+
+## 2. Data wrangling and preprocessing
+
+- Create a Jupyter Notebook to analyse the data sets and perform EDA (Exploratory Data Analysis). This notebook should contain at least:
+
+  - Missing values analysis
+  - Outliers analysis (there are a lot of outliers)
+  - One of average price for companies for all variables (save the plot with the images).
+  - Describe at least 5 outliers ('ticker', 'date', 'price'). Put them in `outliers.txt` file with the 3 fields on the folder `results`.
+
+_Note: create functions that generate the plots and save them in the images folder. Add a parameter `plot` with a default value `False` which doesn't return the plot. This will be useful for the correction to let people run your code without overriding your plots._
+
+- Here is how the `prices` data should be preprocessed:
+
+  - Resample data on month and keep the last value
+  - Filter prices outliers: Remove prices outside of the range 0.1$, 10k$
+  - Compute monthly returns:
+
+    - Historical returns. **returns(current month) = price(current month) - price(previous month) / price(previous month)**
+    - Future returns. **returns(current month) = price(next month) - price(current month) / price(current month)**
+
+  - Replace returns outliers by the last value available regarding the company. This corrects prices spikes that corresponds to a monthly return greater than 1 and smaller than -0.5. This correction should not consider the 2008 and 2009 period as the financial crisis impacted the market brutally. **Don't forget that a value is considered as an outlier comparing to the other returns/prices of the same company**
+
+At this stage the DataFrame should looks like this:
+
+|                                                      |   Price | monthly_past_return | monthly_future_return |
+| :--------------------------------------------------- | ------: | ------------------: | -------------------: |
+| (Timestamp('2000-12-31 00:00:00', freq='M'), 'A')    | 36.7304 |                 nan |          -0.00365297 |
+| (Timestamp('2000-12-31 00:00:00', freq='M'), 'AA')   | 25.9505 |                 nan |             0.101194 |
+| (Timestamp('2000-12-31 00:00:00', freq='M'), 'AAPL') | 1.00646 |                 nan |             0.452957 |
+| (Timestamp('2000-12-31 00:00:00', freq='M'), 'ABC')  | 11.4383 |                 nan |           -0.0528713 |
+| (Timestamp('2000-12-31 00:00:00', freq='M'), 'ABT')  | 38.7945 |                 nan |             -0.07205 |
+
+- Fill the missing values using the last available value (same company)
+- Drop the missing values that can't be filled
+- Print `prices.isna().sum()`
+
+- Here is how the `sp500.csv` data should be preprocessed:
+
+  - Resample data on month and keep the last value
+  - Compute historical monthly returns on the adjusted close
+
+## 3. Create signal
+
+At this stage we have a data set with features that we will leverage to get an investment signal. As previously said, we will focus on one single variable to create the signal: **monthly_past_return**. The signal will be the average of monthly returns of the previous year
+
+The naive assumption made here is that if a stock has performed well the last year it will perform well the next month. Moreover, we assume that we can buy stocks as soon as we have the signal (the signal is available at the close of day `d` and we assume that we can buy the stock at close of day `d`. The assumption is acceptable while considering monthly returns, because the difference between the close of day `d` and the open of day `d+1` is small comparing to the monthly return)
+
+- Create a column `average_return_1y`
+- Create a column named `signal` that contains `True` if `average_return_1y` is among the 20 highest in the month `average_return_1y`.
+
+## 4. Backtester
+
+At this stage we have an investment signal that indicates each month what are the 20 companies we should invest 1$ on (1$ each). In order to check the strategies and performance we will backtest our investment signal.
+
+- Compute the PnL and the total return of our strategy without a for loop. Save the results in a text file `results.txt` in the folder `results`.
+- Compute the PnL and the total return of the strategy that consists in investing 20$ each day on the SP500. Compare. Save the results in a text file `results.txt` in the folder `results`.
+- Create a plot that shows the performance of the strategy over time for the SP500 and the Stock Picking 20 strategy.
+
+A data point (x-axis: date, y-axis: cumulated_return) is: the **cumulated returns** from the beginning of the strategy at date `t`. Save the plot in the results folder.
+
+> This plot is used a lot in Finance because it helps to compare a custom strategy with in index. In that case we say that the SP500 is used as **benchmark** for the Stock Picking Strategy.
+
+![alt text][performance]
+
+[performance]: images/w1_weekend_plot_pnl.png 'Cumulative Performance'
+
+## 5. Main
+
+Here is a sketch of `main.py`.
+
+```python
+# main.py
+
+# import data
+prices, sp500 = memory_reducer(paths)
+
+# preprocessing
+prices, sp500 = preprocessing(prices, sp500)
+
+# create signal
+prices = create_signal(prices)
+
+#backtest
+backtest(prices, sp500)
+```
+
+**The command `python main.py` executes the code from data imports to the backtest and save the results.**

subjects/ai/backtesting-on-the-sp500/audit/README.md

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+# Backtesting on the SP500 - audit
+
+### Preliminary
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   sp500.csv
+│   |   prices.csv
+│
+└───notebook
+│   │   analysis.ipynb
+|
+|───scripts
+|   │   memory_reducer.py
+|   │   preprocessing.py
+|   │   create_signal.py
+|   |   backtester.py
+│   |   main.py
+│
+└───results
+    │   plots
+    │   results.txt
+    │   outliers.txt
+
+```
+
+###### Does the readme file contain a description of the project, explain how to run the code from an empty environment, give a summary of the implementation of each python file and contain a conclusion that gives the performance of the strategy?
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+###### Does the notebook contain a missing values analysis? **Example**: number of missing values per variables or per year
+
+###### Does the notebook contain an outliers analysis?
+
+###### Does the notebook contain a Histogram of average price for companies for all variables (saved the plot with the images) ? This is required only for `prices.csv` data.
+
+###### Does the notebook describe at least 5 outliers ('ticker', 'date', price) ? To check the outliers it is simple: Search the historical stock price on Google at the given date and compare. The price may fluctuate a bit. The goal here is not to match the historical price found on Google but to detect a huge difference between the price in our data and the real historical one.
+
+Notes:
+
+- For all questions always check the values are sorted by date. If not the answers are wrong.
+- The plots are validated only if they contain a title
+
+### Python files
+
+#### 1. memory_reducer.py
+
+###### Do the `prices` data set weights less than **8MB** (Mega Bytes) ?
+
+###### Do the `sp500` data set weights less than **0.15MB** (Mega Bytes) ?
+
+###### Do the data type is greater than `np.float32` ? Smaller data type may alter the precision of the data.
+
+#### 2. preprocessing.py
+
+##### The data is agregated on a monthly period and only the last element is kept
+
+##### The outliers are filtered out by removing all prices bigger than 10k $ and smaller than 0.1 $
+
+##### The historical return is computed using only current and past values.
+
+##### The futur return is computed using only current and futur value. (Reminder: as the data is resampled monthly, computing the return is straightforward)
+
+##### The outliers in the returns data is set to NaN for all returns not in the years 2008 and 2009. The filters are: return > 1 and return < -0.5.
+
+##### The missing values are filled using the last value available **for the company**. `df.fillna(method='ffill')` is wrong because the previous value can be the return or price of another company.
+
+##### The missing values that can't be filled using a the previous existing value are dropped.
+
+##### The number of missing values is 0
+
+Best practice:
+
+    Do not fill the last values for the futur return because the values are missing because the data set ends at a given date. Filling the previous doesn't make sense. It makes more sense to drop the row because the backtest focuses on observed data.
+
+#### 3. create_signal.py
+
+##### The metric `average_return_1y` is added as a new column if the merged DataFrame. The metric is relative to a company. It is important to group the data by company first before to compute the average return over 1y. It is accepted to consider that one year is 12 consecutive rows.
+
+##### The signal is added as a new column to the merged DataFrame. The signal which is boolean indicates whether, within the same month, the company is in the top 20. The top 20 corresponds to the 20 companies with the 20 highest metric within the same month. The highest metric gets the rank 1 (if rank is used the parameter `ascending` should be set to `False`).
+
+#### 4. backtester.py
+
+##### The PnL is computed by multiplying the signal `Series` by the **futur returns**.
+
+##### The return of the strategy is computed by dividing the PnL by the sum of the signal `Series`.
+
+##### The signal used on the SP500 is the `pd.Series([20,20,...,20])`
+
+##### The series used in the plot are the cumulative PnL. `cumsum` can be used
+
+##### The PnL on the full historical data is **smaller than 75$**. If not, it means that the outliers where not corrected correctly.
+
+###### Does the plot contain a title ?
+
+###### Does the plot contain a legend ?
+
+###### Does the plot contain a x-axis and y-axis name ?
+
+![alt text][performance]
+
+[performance]: ../images/w1_weekend_plot_pnl.png "Cumulative Performance"
+
+#### 5. main.py
+
+###### The command `python main.py` executes the code from data imports to the backtest and save the results? It shouldn't return any error to validate the project.

subjects/ai/classification-with-scikit-learn /README.md

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+# Classification with Scikit Learn
+
+The goal of this day is to understand practical classification.
+
+Today we will learn a different approach in Machine Learning: the classification which is a large domain in the field of statistics and machine learning. Generally, it can be broken down in two areas:
+
+- **Binary classification**, where we wish to group an outcome into one of two groups.
+- **Multi-class classification**, where we wish to group an outcome into one of multiple (more than two) groups.
+
+You may wonder why the approach is different from regression and why we don't use regression and define a threshold from where the class would 1 else 0 - in binary classification.
+The main reason is that the linear regression is sensitive to outliers, hence the treshold would vary depending on the outliers in the data. The article mentioned explains this reason with plots. To keep things simple, we can say that the output needed in classification is a probability to belong to one of the classes. So, by definition the value output by the classification model has to be between 0 and 1. The linear regression can't satisfy this constraint.
+
+In mathematics, there are functions with nice properties that take as input a real (-inf, inf) and output a value between 0 and 1, the most popular of them is the **sigmoid** - which is the inverse function of the logit, hence the name logistic regression.
+
+Let's take a small example to have a better understanding of the steps needed to perform a logistic regression on a binary data. Let's assume that we want to predict the gender given the people' size (height).
+
+Logistic regression steps:
+
+- Fit a sigmoid on the training data
+- Compute sigmoid(size)=0.7 because the sigmoid returns values between 0 and 1
+- Return the class: 0.7 > 0.5 => class 1. Thus, the gender is male
+
+For the linear regression exercises, the loss (Mean Square Error - MSE) is minimized with an algorithm called **gradient descent**. In the classification, the loss MSE can't be used because the output of the model is 0 or 1 (for binary classification).
+
+The **logloss** or **cross entropy** is the loss used for classification. Similarly, it has some nice mathematical properties. The minimization of the **logloss** is not covered in the exercises. However, since it is used in most machine learning models for classification, I recommend to spend some time reading the related article.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Logistic regression with Scikit-learn
+- Exercise 2: Sigmoid
+- Exercise 3: Decision boundary
+- Exercise 4: Train test split
+- Exercise 5: Breast Cancer prediction
+- Exercise 6 Multi-class (**Optional**)
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Matplotlib
+- Scikit Learn
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of Scikit Learn I used to do the exercises: 0.22_. I suggest to use the most recent one. Scikit Learn 1.0 is finally available after ... 14 years.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+### Logistic regression
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/understanding-logistic-regression-9b02c2aec102
+
+### Logloss
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/cross-entropy-for-classification-d98e7f974451
+
+- https://medium.com/swlh/what-is-logistic-regression-62807de62efa
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, `matplotlib` and `scikit-learn`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Logistic regression in Scikit-learn
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use Scikit-learn to classify data.
+
+```python
+X = [[0],[0.1],[0.2], [1],[1.1],[1.2], [1.3]]
+y = [0,0,0,1,1,1,0]
+```
+
+1. Predict the class for `x_pred = [[0.5]]`.
+
+2. Predict the probabilities for `x_pred = [[0.5]]` using `predict_proba`.
+
+3. Print the coefficients (`coef_`), the intercept (`intercept_`) and the score of the logistic regression of X and y.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Sigmoid
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to compute and plot the sigmoid function.
+
+1. On the same plot, plot the sigmoid function and the custom sigmoids defined as:
+
+- `sigmoid1(x) = 1/(1+ exp(-(0.5*x + 3)))`
+
+- `sigmoid2(x) = 1/(1+ exp(-(5*x + 11)))`
+
+- Add a line representing the probability=0.5
+
+The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][ex2q1]
+
+[ex2q1]: ./w2_day2_ex2_q1.png "Scatter plot"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Decision boundary
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to fit a logistic regression on simple examples and to understand how the algorithm separated the data from the different classes.
+
+## 1 dimension
+
+First, we will start as usual with features data in 1 dimension. Use `make classification` from Scikit-learn to generate 100 data points:
+
+```python
+X,y = make_classification(
+    n_samples=100,
+    n_features=1,
+    n_informative=1,
+    n_redundant=0,
+    n_repeated=0,
+    n_classes=2,
+    n_clusters_per_class=1,
+    weights=[0.5,0.5],
+    flip_y=0.15,
+    class_sep=2.0,
+    hypercube=True,
+    shift=1.0,
+    scale=1.0,
+    shuffle=True,
+    random_state=88
+)
+```
+
+_Warning: The shape of X is not the same as the shape of y. You may need (for some questions) to reshape X using: `X.reshape(1,-1)[0]`._
+
+1. Plot the data using a scatter plot. The x-axis contains the feature and y-axis contains the target.
+
+The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q1]
+
+[ex3q3]: ./w2_day2_ex3_q3.png "Scatter plot"
+
+2. Fit a Logistic Regression on the generated data using scikit learn. Print the coefficients and the interception of the Logistic Regression.
+
+3. Add to the previous plot the fitted sigmoid and the 0.5 probability line. The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q3]
+
+[ex3q1]: ./w2_day2_ex3_q1.png "Scatter plot + Logistic regression"
+
+4.  Create a function `predict_probability` that takes as input the data point and the coefficients and that returns the predicted probability. As a reminder, the probability is given by: `p(x) = 1/(1+ exp(-(coef*x + intercept)))`. Check you have the same results as the method `predict_proba` from Scikit-learn.
+
+```python
+def predict_probability(coefs, X):
+    '''
+    coefs is a list that contains a and b: [coef, intercept]
+    X is the features set
+
+    Returns probability of X
+    '''
+    #TODO
+    probabilities =
+
+    return probabilities
+```
+
+5. Create a function `predict_class` that takes as input the data point and the coefficients and that returns the predicted class. Check you have the same results as the class method `predict` output on the same data.
+
+6. On the plot add the predicted class. The plot should look like this (the predicted class is shifted a bit to make the plot more understandable, but obviously the predicted class is 0 or 1, not 0.1 or 0.9)
+   The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q6]
+
+[ex3q6]: ./w2_day2_ex3_q5.png "Scatter plot + Logistic regression + predictions"
+
+## 2 dimensions
+
+Now, let us repeat this process on 2-dimensional data. The goal is to focus on the decision boundary and to understand how the Logistic Regression create a line that separates the data. The code to plot the decision boundary is provided, however it is important to understand the way it works.
+
+- Generate 500 data points using:
+
+```python
+X, y = make_classification(n_features=2,
+                           n_redundant=0,
+                           n_samples=250,
+                           n_classes=2,
+                           n_clusters_per_class=1,
+                           flip_y=0.05,
+                           class_sep=3,
+                           random_state=43)
+```
+
+7. Fit the Logistic Regression on X and y and use the code below to plot the fitted sigmoid on the data set.
+
+The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q7]
+
+[ex3q7]: ./w2_day2_ex3_q6.png "Logistic regression decision boundary"
+
+```python
+xx, yy = np.mgrid[-5:5:.01, -5:5:.01]
+grid = np.c_[xx.ravel(), yy.ravel()]
+#if needed change the line below
+probs = clf.predict_proba(grid)[:, 1].reshape(xx.shape)
+
+f, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(8, 6))
+contour = ax.contourf(xx, yy, probs, 25, cmap="RdBu",
+                      vmin=0, vmax=1)
+ax_c = f.colorbar(contour)
+ax_c.set_label("$P(y = 1)$")
+ax_c.set_ticks([0, .25, .5, .75, 1])
+
+ax.scatter(X[:,0], X[:, 1], c=y, s=50,
+           cmap="RdBu", vmin=-.2, vmax=1.2,
+           edgecolor="white", linewidth=1)
+
+ax.set(aspect="equal",
+       xlim=(-5, 5), ylim=(-5, 5),
+       xlabel="$X_1$", ylabel="$X_2$")
+
+```
+
+The plot should look like this:
+
+- https://stackoverflow.com/questions/28256058/plotting-decision-boundary-of-logistic-regression
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Train test split
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to split a classification data set. The idea is the same as splitting a regression data set but there's one important detail specific to the classification: the proportion of each class in the train set and test set.
+
+```python
+   X = np.arange(1,21).reshape(10,-1)
+   y = np.zeros(10)
+   y[7:] = 1
+```
+
+1. Split the data using `train_test_split` with `shuffle=False`. The test set represents 20% of the total size of the data set. Print X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test. Compute the proportion of class `1` on the train set and test set.
+
+2. Having a train set with different properties than the test set is not recommended. The analogy of the exam (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vdMKioCXqQ) helps to understand this point: if the questions you have at the exam are completely different from what you prepared for you are not evaluated on what you learn. The training set has to be representative of the data set. Now, split the data in a train set and test set, but keep the proportion of class `1` nearly constant. The parameter `shuffle` in theory works as it relies on a random sampling. The parameter `stratify` will always split the data and keep the same proportion of class `1` in the train set and test set. Using the parameter `stratify` split the data below and print the proportion of class `1` in the train set and train set.
+
+```python
+X = np.arange(1,201).reshape(100,-1)
+y = np.zeros(100)
+y[70:] = 1
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Breast Cancer prediction
+
+The goal of this exercise is to use Logistic Regression
+to predict breast cancer. It is always important to understand the data before training any Machine Learning algorithm. The data is described in **breast-cancer-wisconsin.names**. I suggest to add manually the column names in the DataFrame.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- If needed, replace missing values with the median of the column.
+
+- Handle the column `Sample code number`. This column won't be used to train the model as it doesn't contain information on breast cancer. There are two solutions: drop it or set it as index.
+
+1. Print the proportion of class `Benign`. What would be the accuracy if the model always predicts `Benign`?
+   Later this week we will learn about other metrics as AUC that will help us to tackle high imbalanced data sets.
+
+2. Using train_test_split, split the data set in a train set and test set (20%). Both sets should have approximately the same proportion of class `Benign`. Use `random_state = 43`.
+
+3. Fit the logistic regression on the train set. Predict on the train set and test set. Compute the score on the train set and test set. 92-97% accuracy is expected on the test set.
+
+4. Compute the confusion matrix on both tests. Analyse the number of false negative and false positive.
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.metrics.confusion_matrix.html
+
+- https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/machine-learning-databases/breast-cancer-wisconsin/
+
+---
+---
+
+
+# Exercise 6: Multi-class (Optional)
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to train a classification algorithm on a multi-class labelled data.
+Some algorithms as SVM or Logistic Regression do not natively support multi-class (more than 2 classes). There are some approaches that allow to use these algorithms on multi-class data.
+Let's assume we work with 3 classes: A, B and C.
+
+- One-vs-Rest considers 3 binary classification problems: A vs B,C; B vs A,C and C vs A,B. If there are 10 classes, 10 binary classification problems would be fitted.
+- One-vs-One considers 3 binary classification problems: A vs B, A vs C, B vs C. If there are 10 classes, 45 binary classification problems would be fitted. Given, the volume of data, this technique may not be scalable.
+
+More details:
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/one-vs-rest-and-one-vs-one-for-multi-class-classification/
+
+Let's implement the One-vs-Rest approach from `LogisticRegression`.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Import the Setosa data set from Scikit-learn
+
+```python
+from sklearn.datasets import load_iris
+iris = load_iris()
+
+X = pd.DataFrame(data=iris['data'], columns=iris.feature_names)
+y = pd.DataFrame(data=iris['target'], columns=['target'])
+```
+
+- Using train_test_split, split the data set in a train set and test set (20%) with `shuffle=True` and `random_state=43`.
+
+1. Create a function that takes as input the data and returns three **trained** classifiers.
+
+- `clf0` takes as input a binary data set where the class 1 is `0` and class 0 is `1` and `2`.
+- `clf1` takes as input a binary data set where the class 1 is `1` and class 0 is `0` and `2`.
+- `clf2` takes as input a binary data set where the class 1 is `2` and class 0 is `0` and `1`.
+
+```python
+def train(X_train,y_train):
+       #TODO
+       return clf0, clf1, clf2
+```
+
+2. Create a function that takes as input the trained classifiers and the features set and that returns the predicted class. Use `predict_one_vs_all` to output the predicted classes on the test set. Compare the results with Logistic Regression algorithm from scikit learn used in One-vs-All mode. The results may change because the solver may not converge. Later this week, we will learn to preprocess the data to avoid convergence issues.
+
+- `clf0` outputs the probability to belong to the class 1 which is `0`.
+- `clf1` outputs the probability to belong to the class 1 which is `1`.
+- `clf2` outputs the probability to belong to the class 1 which is `2`.
+
+The predicted class is the one that gets the **highest probability** among the three models.
+
+```python
+def predict_one_vs_all(X, clf0, clf1, clf2 ):
+       #TODO
+       return classes
+```
+
+- https://randerson112358.medium.com/python-logistic-regression-program-5e1b32f964db
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/logistic-regression-using-python-sklearn-numpy-mnist-handwriting-recognition-matplotlib-a6b31e2b166a

subjects/ai/classification-with-scikit-learn /audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,220 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`
+
+##### Run `python --version`
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+###### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, `import matplotlib` and `import sklearn` run without any error ?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Logistic regression with Scikit-learn
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the predicted class is `0`.
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the predicted probabilities are `[0.61450526 0.38549474]`
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the output is:
+
+```console
+Coefficient:
+ [[0.81786797]]
+Intercept:
+ [-0.87522391]
+Score:
+ 0.7142857142857143
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Sigmoid
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the plot looks like this:
+
+![alt text][ex2q1]
+
+[ex2q1]: ../w2_day2_ex2_q1.png "Scatter plot"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Decision boundary
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the outputted plot looks like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q1]
+
+[ex3q1]: ../w2_day2_ex3_q1.png "Scatter plot"
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the coefficient and the intercept of the Logistic Regression are:
+
+```console
+Intercept:  [-0.98385574]
+Coefficient:  [[1.18866075]]
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the plot looks like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q2]
+
+[ex3q2]: ../w2_day2_ex3_q3.png "Scatter plot"
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if `predict_probability` outputs the same probabilities as `predict_proba`. Note that the values have to match one of the class probabilities, not both. To do so, compare the output with: `clf.predict_proba(X)[:,1]`. The shape of the arrays is not important.
+
+##### The question 5 is validated if `predict_class` outputs the same classes as `cfl.predict(X)`. The shape of the arrays is not important.
+
+##### The question 6 is validated if the plot looks like the plot below. As mentioned, it is not required to shift the class prediction to make the plot easier to understand.
+
+![alt text][ex3q6]
+
+[ex3q6]: ../w2_day2_ex3_q5.png "Scatter plot + Logistic regression + predictions"
+
+##### The question 7 is validated if the plot looks like this:
+
+![alt text][ex3q7]
+
+[ex3q7]: ../w2_day2_ex3_q6.png "Logistic regression decision boundary"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Train test split
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test match the output below. The proportion of class `1` is **0.125** in the train set and **1.** in the test set.
+
+```console
+X_train:
+ [[ 1  2]
+ [ 3  4]
+ [ 5  6]
+ [ 7  8]
+ [ 9 10]
+ [11 12]
+ [13 14]
+ [15 16]]
+
+
+y_train:
+ [0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1.]
+
+
+X_test:
+ [[17 18]
+ [19 20]]
+
+
+y_test:
+ [1. 1.]
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the proportion of class `1` is **0.3** for both sets.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Breast Cancer prediction
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the proportion of class `Benign` is 0.6552217453505007. It means that if you always predict `Benign` your accuracy would be 66%.
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the proportion of one of the classes is the approximately the same on the train and test set: ~0.65. In my case:
+
+- test: 0.6571428571428571
+- train: 0.6547406082289803
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the output is:
+
+```console
+# Train
+Class prediction on train set:
+ [4 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2]
+
+Probability prediction on train set:
+ [0.99600415 0.00908666 0.99992744 0.00528803 0.02097154 0.00582772
+ 0.03565076 0.99515326 0.00788281 0.01065484]
+
+Score on train set:
+ 0.9695885509838998
+
+ #Test
+
+ Class prediction on test set:
+ [2 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 4]
+
+Probability prediction on test set:
+ [0.01747203 0.22495309 0.00698756 0.54020801 0.0015289  0.99862249
+ 0.33607994 0.01227679 0.00438157 0.99972344]
+
+Score on test set:
+ 0.9642857142857143
+
+```
+
+Only the 10 first predictions are outputted. The score is computed on all the data in the folds.
+For some reasons, you may have a different data splitting as mine. The requirement for this question is to have a score on the test set bigger than 92%.
+
+If the score is 1, congratulate you peer, he's just leaked his first target. The target should be dropped from the X_train or X_test ;) !
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the confusion matrix on the train set is similar to:
+
+```console
+array([[357,   9],
+       [  8, 185]])
+```
+
+and if the confusion matrix on the test set is similar to:
+
+```console
+array([[90,  2],
+       [ 3, 45]])
+```
+
+As said, for some reasons, the results may be slightly different from mine because of the data splitting. However, the values in the confusion matrix should be close to these results.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Multi-class (Optional)
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if each classifier has as input a binary data as below:
+
+```python
+def train(X_train, y_train):
+       clf = LogisticRegression()
+       clf1 = LogisticRegression()
+       clf2 = LogisticRegression()
+
+       clf.fit(X_train, y_train == 0)
+       clf1.fit(X_train, y_train == 1)
+       clf2.fit(X_train, y_train == 2)
+
+       return clf, clf1, clf2
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the predicted classes on the test set are:
+
+```console
+array([0, 0, 2, 1, 2, 0, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0,
+       0, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 0, 0])
+```
+
+Even if I had this warning `ConvergenceWarning: lbfgs failed to converge (status=1):` I noticed that `LogisticRegression` returns the same output.

subjects/ai/classification-with-scikit-learn /data/breast-cancer-wisconsin.data

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subjects/ai/classification-with-scikit-learn /data/breast-cancer-wisconsin.names

@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+Citation Request:
+   This breast cancer databases was obtained from the University of Wisconsin
+   Hospitals, Madison from Dr. William H. Wolberg.  If you publish results
+   when using this database, then please include this information in your
+   acknowledgements.  Also, please cite one or more of:
+
+   1. O. L. Mangasarian and W. H. Wolberg: "Cancer diagnosis via linear 
+      programming", SIAM News, Volume 23, Number 5, September 1990, pp 1 & 18.
+
+   2. William H. Wolberg and O.L. Mangasarian: "Multisurface method of 
+      pattern separation for medical diagnosis applied to breast cytology", 
+      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., Volume 87, 
+      December 1990, pp 9193-9196.
+
+   3. O. L. Mangasarian, R. Setiono, and W.H. Wolberg: "Pattern recognition 
+      via linear programming: Theory and application to medical diagnosis", 
+      in: "Large-scale numerical optimization", Thomas F. Coleman and Yuying
+      Li, editors, SIAM Publications, Philadelphia 1990, pp 22-30.
+
+   4. K. P. Bennett & O. L. Mangasarian: "Robust linear programming 
+      discrimination of two linearly inseparable sets", Optimization Methods
+      and Software 1, 1992, 23-34 (Gordon & Breach Science Publishers).
+
+1. Title: Wisconsin Breast Cancer Database (January 8, 1991)
+
+2. Sources:
+   -- Dr. WIlliam H. Wolberg (physician)
+      University of Wisconsin Hospitals
+      Madison, Wisconsin
+      USA
+   -- Donor: Olvi Mangasarian (mangasarian@cs.wisc.edu)
+      Received by David W. Aha (aha@cs.jhu.edu)
+   -- Date: 15 July 1992
+
+3. Past Usage:
+
+   Attributes 2 through 10 have been used to represent instances.
+   Each instance has one of 2 possible classes: benign or malignant.
+
+   1. Wolberg,~W.~H., \& Mangasarian,~O.~L. (1990). Multisurface method of 
+      pattern separation for medical diagnosis applied to breast cytology. In
+      {\it Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, {\it 87},
+      9193--9196.
+      -- Size of data set: only 369 instances (at that point in time)
+      -- Collected classification results: 1 trial only
+      -- Two pairs of parallel hyperplanes were found to be consistent with
+         50% of the data
+         -- Accuracy on remaining 50% of dataset: 93.5%
+      -- Three pairs of parallel hyperplanes were found to be consistent with
+         67% of data
+         -- Accuracy on remaining 33% of dataset: 95.9%
+
+   2. Zhang,~J. (1992). Selecting typical instances in instance-based
+      learning.  In {\it Proceedings of the Ninth International Machine
+      Learning Conference} (pp. 470--479).  Aberdeen, Scotland: Morgan
+      Kaufmann.
+      -- Size of data set: only 369 instances (at that point in time)
+      -- Applied 4 instance-based learning algorithms 
+      -- Collected classification results averaged over 10 trials
+      -- Best accuracy result: 
+         -- 1-nearest neighbor: 93.7%
+         -- trained on 200 instances, tested on the other 169
+      -- Also of interest:
+         -- Using only typical instances: 92.2% (storing only 23.1 instances)
+         -- trained on 200 instances, tested on the other 169
+
+4. Relevant Information:
+
+   Samples arrive periodically as Dr. Wolberg reports his clinical cases.
+   The database therefore reflects this chronological grouping of the data.
+   This grouping information appears immediately below, having been removed
+   from the data itself:
+
+     Group 1: 367 instances (January 1989)
+     Group 2:  70 instances (October 1989)
+     Group 3:  31 instances (February 1990)
+     Group 4:  17 instances (April 1990)
+     Group 5:  48 instances (August 1990)
+     Group 6:  49 instances (Updated January 1991)
+     Group 7:  31 instances (June 1991)
+     Group 8:  86 instances (November 1991)
+     -----------------------------------------
+     Total:   699 points (as of the donated datbase on 15 July 1992)
+
+   Note that the results summarized above in Past Usage refer to a dataset
+   of size 369, while Group 1 has only 367 instances.  This is because it
+   originally contained 369 instances; 2 were removed.  The following
+   statements summarizes changes to the original Group 1's set of data:
+
+   #####  Group 1 : 367 points: 200B 167M (January 1989)
+   #####  Revised Jan 10, 1991: Replaced zero bare nuclei in 1080185 & 1187805
+   #####  Revised Nov 22,1991: Removed 765878,4,5,9,7,10,10,10,3,8,1 no record
+   #####                  : Removed 484201,2,7,8,8,4,3,10,3,4,1 zero epithelial
+   #####                  : Changed 0 to 1 in field 6 of sample 1219406
+   #####                  : Changed 0 to 1 in field 8 of following sample:
+   #####                  : 1182404,2,3,1,1,1,2,0,1,1,1
+
+5. Number of Instances: 699 (as of 15 July 1992)
+
+6. Number of Attributes: 10 plus the class attribute
+
+7. Attribute Information: (class attribute has been moved to last column)
+
+   #  Attribute                     Domain
+   -- -----------------------------------------
+   1. Sample code number            id number
+   2. Clump Thickness               1 - 10
+   3. Uniformity of Cell Size       1 - 10
+   4. Uniformity of Cell Shape      1 - 10
+   5. Marginal Adhesion             1 - 10
+   6. Single Epithelial Cell Size   1 - 10
+   7. Bare Nuclei                   1 - 10
+   8. Bland Chromatin               1 - 10
+   9. Normal Nucleoli               1 - 10
+  10. Mitoses                       1 - 10
+  11. Class:                        (2 for benign, 4 for malignant)
+
+8. Missing attribute values: 16
+
+   There are 16 instances in Groups 1 to 6 that contain a single missing 
+   (i.e., unavailable) attribute value, now denoted by "?".  
+
+9. Class distribution:
+ 
+   Benign: 458 (65.5%)
+   Malignant: 241 (34.5%)

subjects/ai/credit-scoring/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+# Credit scoring
+
+The goal of this project is to implement a scoring model based on various source of data (check data documentation) that returns the probability of default. In a nutshell, credit scoring represents an evaluation of how well the bank's customer can pay and is willing to pay off debt. It is also required that you provide an explanation of the score. For example, your model returns that the probability that one client doesn't pay back the loan is very high (90%). The reason behind is that variable_xxx which represents the ability to pay back the past loan is low. The output interpretability will appear in a visualization.
+
+The ability to understand the underlying factors of credit scoring is important. Credit scoring is subject to more and more regulation, so transparency is key. And more generaly, more and more companies prefer transparency to black box models.
+
+### Resources
+
+Historical timeline of machine learning techniques applied to credit scoring
+
+- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02507499v3/document
+- https://www.kaggle.com/c/home-credit-default-risk/data
+
+# Deliverables
+
+### Scoring model
+
+The are 3 expected deliverables associated with the scoring model:
+
+- An exploratory data analysis notebook that describes the insights you find out in the data set.
+- The trained machine learning model with the features engineering pipeline:
+
+  - Do not forget: **Coming up with features is difficult, time-consuming, requires expert knowledge. ‘Applied machine learning’ is basically feature engineering.**
+  - The model is validated if the **AUC on the test set is higher than 75%**.
+  - The labelled test data is not publicly available. However a Kaggle competition uses the same data. The procedure to evaluate test set submission is the same as the one used for the project 1.
+
+### Kaggle submission
+
+The way the Kaggle platform works is explained in the challenge overview page. If you need more details, I suggest this resource that gives detailed explanations.
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/getting-started-with-kaggle-f9138b35ae18
+
+- Create a username following that structure: username*01EDU* location_MM_YYYY. Submit the description profile and push it on the Git platform the first day of the week. Do not touch this file anymore.
+
+- A text document that describes the methodology used to train the machine learning model:
+  - Algorithm
+  - Why the accuracy shouldn't be used in that case ?
+  - Limit and possible improvements
+
+### Model interpretability
+
+This part hasn't been covered during the piscine. Take the time to understand this key concept.
+There are different level of transparency:
+
+- **Global**: understand important variables in a model. This answers the question: "What are the key variables to the model ? ". In that case it will tell if the revenue is more important than the age to the model for example. This allows to check that the model relies on important variables. No one wants his credit to be refused because of the weather in Lisbon !
+- **Local**: each observation gets its own set of interpretability factors. This greatly increases its transparency. We can explain why a case receives its prediction and the contributions of the predictors. Traditional variable importance algorithms only show the results across the entire population but not on each individual case. The local interpretability enables us to pinpoint and contrast the impacts of the factors.
+
+There are 2 tools you can use to analyse your model and its predictions: - Features importance (available if you use a Scikit Learn model) - [SHAP library](https://towardsdatascience.com/explain-your-model-with-the-shap-values-bc36aac4de3d)
+
+Implement a program that takes as input the trained model, the customer id ... and returns:
+
+- the score and the SHAP force plot associated with it
+- Plotly visualisations that show:
+  - key variables describing the client and its loan(s)
+  - comparison between this client and other clients
+
+Choose the 3 clients of your choice, compute the score, run the visualizations on their data and save them.
+
+- Take 2 clients from the train set:
+  - 1 on which the model is correct and the other on which the model is wrong. Try to understand why the model got wrong on this client.
+- Take 1 client from the test set
+
+### Optional
+
+Implement a dashboard (using Dash) that takes as input the customer id and that returns the score and the required visualizations.
+
+- https://stackoverflow.com/questions/54292226/putting-html-output-from-shap-into-the-dash-output-layout-callback
+
+### Deliverables
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   ...
+│
+└───results
+│   │
+|   |───model (free format)
+│   │   │   my_own_model.pkl
+│   │   │   model_report.txt
+│   │
+|   |feature_engineering
+│   │   │   EDA.ipynb
+│   │
+|   |───clients_outputs
+|   |   |   client1_correct_train.pdf  (free format)
+│   │   │   client2_wrong_train.pdf  (free format)
+│   │   │   client_test.pdf   (free format)
+│   │
+|   |───dashboard (optional)
+|   |   |   dashboard.py  (free format)
+│   │   │   ...
+|
+|───scripts (free format)
+│   │   train.py
+│   │   predict.py
+│   │   preprocess.py
+```
+
+- `README.md` introduces the project and shows the username.
+- `environment.yml` contains all libraries required to run the code.
+- `username.txt` contains the username, the last modified date of the file **has to correspond to the first day of the project**.
+- `EDA.ipynb` contains the exploratory data analysis. This file is should contain all steps of data analysis that contributed or not to improve the score of the model. It has to be commented so that the reviewer can understand the analysis and run it without any problem.
+
+- `scripts` contains python file(s) that perform(s) the feature engineering, the model's training and prediction on the test set. It could also be one single Jupyter Notebook. It has to be commented to help the reviewers understand the approach and run the code without any bugs.
+
+### Useful resources
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/interpretability-in-machine-learning-70c30694a05f
+
+### Files needed for this project
+
+[File 1](https://assets.01-edu.org/ai-branch/project5/project05-20221024T130417Z-001.zip)
+[File 2](https://assets.01-edu.org/ai-branch/project5/project05-20221024T130417Z-002.zip)

subjects/ai/credit-scoring/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+#### Credit scoring
+
+##### Preliminary
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   ...
+│
+└───results
+│   │
+|   |───model (free format)
+│   │   │   my_own_model.pkl
+│   │   │   model_report.txt
+│   │
+|   |feature_engineering
+│   │   │   EDA.ipynb
+│   │
+|   |───clients_outputs
+|   |   |   client1_correct_train.pdf  (free format)
+│   │   │   client2_wrong_train.pdf  (free format)
+│   │   │   client_test.pdf   (free format)
+│   │
+|   |───dashboard (optional)
+|   |   |   dashboard.py  (free format)
+│   │   │   ...
+|
+|───scripts (free format)
+│   │   train.py
+│   │   predict.py
+│   │   preprocess.py
+```
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+###### Does the readme file introduce the project, summurize how to run the code and show the username ?
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+###### Does the `EDA.ipynb` explain in details the exploratory data analysis ?
+
+## Machine learning model
+
+###### Is the model trained only the training set ?
+
+###### Is the AUC on the test set is higher than 75% ?
+
+###### Does the model learning curves prove that the model is not overfitting ?
+
+###### Has the training been stopped early enough to avoid the overfitting ?
+
+###### Does the text document `model_report.txt` describe the methodology used to train the machine learning model ?
+
+###### Does `predict.py` run without any error and returns the following ?
+
+    ```prompt
+    python predict.py
+
+    AUC on test set: 0.76
+
+    ```
+
+This [article](https://medium.com/thecyphy/home-credit-default-risk-part-2-84b58c1ab9d5) gives a complete example of a good modelling approach:
+
+## Model's interpretability
+
+### Feature importance:
+
+###### Are the importance of all features used by the model computed and showed in a visualisation ?
+
+###### Is the mapping between between the importance of the features and the features' name is correct ? You should be careful here to associate the right variables to the their feature importance. Sometimes, the preprocessing pipeline can remove some features during the features selection step for instance.
+
+### Descriptive variables:
+
+##### These are important to understand for example the age of the client. If the data could be scaled or modified in the preprocessing pipeline but the data visualised here should be "raw". This part is validated if the visualisations are computed for the 3 clients.
+
+    - visualisations that show at least 10 variables describing the client and its loan(s)
+    - visualisations that show the comparison between this client and other clients.
+
+##### SHAP values on the model are displayed through a summary plot that shows the important features and their impact on the target. This is optional if you have already computed the features importance.
+
+###### Do the 3 clients are selected as expected ? 2 clients from the train set (1 on which the model is correct and 1 on which the model's wrong) and 1 client from the test set.
+
+##### SHAP values on predictions are computed for the 3 clients. The force plot shows what variables contributes the most to the score. **Check that the score outputted by the force plot corresponds to the one outputted by the model.**

subjects/ai/credit-scoring/readme_data.md

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+# Credit scoring data description
+
+This file describes the available data for the project.
+
+![alt data description](data_description.png "Credit scoring data description")
+
+## application_{train|test}.csv
+
+This is the main table, broken into two files for Train (with TARGET) and Test (without TARGET).
+Static data for all applications. One row represents one loan in our data sample.
+
+## bureau.csv
+
+All client's previous credits provided by other financial institutions that were reported to Credit Bureau (for clients who have a loan in our sample).
+For every loan in our sample, there are as many rows as number of credits the client had in Credit Bureau before the application date.
+
+## bureau_balance.csv
+
+Monthly balances of previous credits in Credit Bureau.
+This table has one row for each month of history of every previous credit reported to Credit Bureau – i.e the table has (#loans in sample * # of relative previous credits * # of months where we have some history observable for the previous credits) rows.
+
+## POS_CASH_balance.csv
+
+Monthly balance snapshots of previous POS (point of sales) and cash loans that the applicant had with Home Credit.
+This table has one row for each month of history of every previous credit in Home Credit (consumer credit and cash loans) related to loans in our sample – i.e. the table has (#loans in sample * # of relative previous credits * # of months in which we have some history observable for the previous credits) rows.
+
+## credit_card_balance.csv
+
+Monthly balance snapshots of previous credit cards that the applicant has with Home Credit.
+This table has one row for each month of history of every previous credit in Home Credit (consumer credit and cash loans) related to loans in our sample – i.e. the table has (#loans in sample * # of relative previous credit cards * # of months where we have some history observable for the previous credit card) rows.
+
+## previous_application.csv
+
+All previous applications for Home Credit loans of clients who have loans in our sample.
+There is one row for each previous application related to loans in our data sample.
+
+
+## installments_payments.csv
+
+Repayment history for the previously disbursed credits in Home Credit related to the loans in our sample.
+There is a) one row for every payment that was made plus b) one row each for missed payment.
+One row is equivalent to one payment of one installment OR one installment corresponding to one payment of one previous Home Credit credit related to loans in our sample.
+
+## HomeCredit_columns_description.csv
+
+This file contains descriptions for the columns in the various data files.

subjects/ai/data-wrangling-with-pandas/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,302 @@
+# Data wrangling with Pandas
+
+Data wrangling is one of the crucial tasks in data science and analysis which includes operations like:
+
+- Data Sorting: To rearrange values in ascending or descending order.
+- Data Filtration: To create a subset of available data.
+- Data Reduction: To eliminate or replace unwanted values.
+- Data Access: To read or write data files.
+- Data Processing: To perform aggregation, statistical, and similar operations on specific values.
+  Ax explained before, Pandas is an open source library, specifically developed for data science and analysis. It is built upon the Numpy (to handle numeric data in tabular form) package and has inbuilt data structures to ease-up the process of data manipulation, aka data munging/wrangling.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercice 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Concatenate
+- Exercise 2: Merge
+- Exercise 3: Merge MultiIndex
+- Exercise 4: Groupby Apply
+- Exercise 5: Groupby Agg
+- Exercise 6: Unstack
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+- Tabulate
+
+_Version of Pandas I used to do the exercises: 1.0.1_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### Resources
+
+- https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/
+
+- https://pandas.pydata.org/Pandas_Cheat_Sheet.pdf
+
+- https://www.learndatasci.com/tutorials/python-pandas-tutorial-complete-introduction-for-beginners/
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/different-ways-to-iterate-over-rows-in-a-pandas-dataframe-performance-comparison-dc0d5dcef8fe
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy` ,`tabulate` and `jupyter`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Concatenate
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to concatenate DataFrames. The logic is the same for the Series.
+
+Here are the two DataFrames to concatenate:
+
+```python
+df1 = pd.DataFrame([['a', 1], ['b', 2]],
+                   columns=['letter', 'number'])
+df2 = pd.DataFrame([['c', 1], ['d', 2]],
+                   columns=['letter', 'number'])
+```
+
+1. Concatenate this two DataFrames on index axis and reset the index. The index of the outputted should be `RangeIndex(start=0, stop=4, step=1)`. **Do not change the index manually**.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Merge
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to merge DataFrames
+The logic of merging DataFrames in Pandas is quite similar as the one used in SQL.
+
+Here are the two DataFrames to merge:
+
+```python
+#df1
+
+df1_dict = {
+        'id': ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5'],
+        'Feature1': ['A', 'C', 'E', 'G', 'I'],
+        'Feature2': ['B', 'D', 'F', 'H', 'J']}
+
+df1 = pd.DataFrame(df1_dict, columns = ['id', 'Feature1', 'Feature2'])
+
+#df2
+df2_dict = {
+        'id': ['1', '2', '6', '7', '8'],
+        'Feature1': ['K', 'M', 'O', 'Q', 'S'],
+        'Feature2': ['L', 'N', 'P', 'R', 'T']}
+
+df2 = pd.DataFrame(df2_dict, columns = ['id', 'Feature1', 'Feature2'])
+```
+
+1. Merge the two DataFrames to get this output:
+
+   |     |  id | Feature1_x | Feature2_x | Feature1_y | Feature2_y |
+   | --: | --: | :--------- | :--------- | :--------- | :--------- |
+   |   0 |   1 | A          | B          | K          | L          |
+   |   1 |   2 | C          | D          | M          | N          |
+
+2. Merge the two DataFrames to get this output:
+
+   |     |  id | Feature1_df1 | Feature2_df1 | Feature1_df2 | Feature2_df2 |
+   | --: | --: | :----------- | :----------- | :----------- | :----------- |
+   |   0 |   1 | A            | B            | K            | L            |
+   |   1 |   2 | C            | D            | M            | N            |
+   |   2 |   3 | E            | F            | nan          | nan          |
+   |   3 |   4 | G            | H            | nan          | nan          |
+   |   4 |   5 | I            | J            | nan          | nan          |
+   |   5 |   6 | nan          | nan          | O            | P            |
+   |   6 |   7 | nan          | nan          | Q            | R            |
+   |   7 |   8 | nan          | nan          | S            | T            |
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Merge MultiIndex
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to merge DataFrames with MultiIndex.
+Use the code below to generate the DataFrames. `market_data` contains fake market data. In finance, the market is available during the trading days (business days). `alternative_data` contains fake alternative data from social media. This data is available every day. But, for some reasons the Data Engineer lost the last 15 days of alternative data.
+
+1. Using `market_data` as the reference, merge `alternative_data` on `market_data`
+
+   ```python
+   #generate days
+   all_dates = pd.date_range('2021-01-01', '2021-12-15')
+   business_dates = pd.bdate_range('2021-01-01', '2021-12-31')
+
+   #generate tickers
+   tickers = ['AAPL', 'FB', 'GE', 'AMZN', 'DAI']
+
+   #create indexs
+   index_alt = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([all_dates, tickers], names=['Date', 'Ticker'])
+   index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([business_dates, tickers], names=['Date', 'Ticker'])
+
+   # create DFs
+   market_data = pd.DataFrame(index=index,
+                           data=np.random.randn(len(index), 3),
+                           columns=['Open','Close','Close_Adjusted'])
+
+   alternative_data = pd.DataFrame(index=index_alt,
+                                   data=np.random.randn(len(index_alt), 2),
+                                   columns=['Twitter','Reddit'])
+   ```
+
+`reset_index` is not allowed for this question
+
+2. Fill missing values with 0
+
+- https://medium.com/swlh/merging-dataframes-with-pandas-pd-merge-7764c7e2d46d
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Groupby Apply
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to group the data and apply a function on the groups.
+The use case we will work on is computing
+
+1.  Create a function that uses `pandas.DataFrame.clip` and that replace extreme values by a given percentile. The values that are greater than the upper percentile 80% are replaced by the percentile 80%. The values that are smaller than the lower percentile 20% are replaced by the percentile 20%. This process that correct outliers is called **winsorizing**.
+    I recommend to use NumPy to compute the percentiles to make sure we used the same default parameters.
+
+```python
+            def winsorize(df, quantiles):
+                """
+                    df: pd.DataFrame
+                    quantiles: list
+                        ex: [0.05, 0.95]
+                """
+                #TODO
+                return
+```
+
+Here is what the function should output:
+
+```python
+            df = pd.DataFrame(range(1,11), columns=['sequence'])
+            print(winsorize(df, [0.20, 0.80]).to_markdown())
+
+```
+
+        |    |   sequence |
+        |---:|-----------:|
+        |  0 |        2.8 |
+        |  1 |        2.8 |
+        |  2 |        3   |
+        |  3 |        4   |
+        |  4 |        5   |
+        |  5 |        6   |
+        |  6 |        7   |
+        |  7 |        8   |
+        |  8 |        8.2 |
+        |  9 |        8.2 |
+
+2.  Now we consider that each value belongs to a group. The goal is to apply the **winsorizing to each group**. In this question we use winsorizing values that are common: `[0.05,0.95]` as percentiles. Here is the new data set:
+
+    ```python
+    groups = np.concatenate([np.ones(10), np.ones(10)+1,  np.ones(10)+2, np.ones(10)+3, np.ones(10)+4])
+
+    df = pd.DataFrame(data= zip(groups,
+                                range(1,51)),
+                    columns=["group", "sequence"])
+    ```
+
+    The expected output (first rows) is:
+
+    |     | sequence |
+    | --: | -------: |
+    |   0 |     1.45 |
+    |   1 |        2 |
+    |   2 |        3 |
+    |   3 |        4 |
+    |   4 |        5 |
+    |   5 |        6 |
+    |   6 |        7 |
+    |   7 |        8 |
+    |   8 |        9 |
+    |   9 |     9.55 |
+    |  10 |    11.45 |
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Groupby Agg
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to compute different type of aggregations on the groups. This small DataFrame contains products and prices.
+
+|     |  value | product      |
+| --: | -----: | :----------- |
+|   0 |  20.45 | table        |
+|   1 |  22.89 | chair        |
+|   2 |  32.12 | chair        |
+|   3 | 111.22 | mobile phone |
+|   4 |  33.22 | table        |
+|   5 |    100 | mobile phone |
+|   6 |  99.99 | table        |
+
+1. Compute the min, max and mean price for each product in one single line of code. The expected output is:
+
+| product      | ('value', 'min') | ('value', 'max') | ('value', 'mean') |
+| :----------- | ---------------: | ---------------: | ----------------: |
+| chair        |            22.89 |            32.12 |            27.505 |
+| mobile phone |              100 |           111.22 |            105.61 |
+| table        |            20.45 |            99.99 |             51.22 |
+
+Note: The columns don't have to be MultiIndex
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Unstack
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to unstack a MultiIndex
+Let's assume we trained a machine learning model that predicts a daily score on the companies (tickers) below. It may be very useful to unstack the MultiIndex: plot the time series, vectorize the backtest, ...
+
+```python
+business_dates = pd.bdate_range('2021-01-01', '2021-12-31')
+
+#generate tickers
+tickers = ['AAPL', 'FB', 'GE', 'AMZN', 'DAI']
+
+#create indexs
+index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([business_dates, tickers], names=['Date', 'Ticker'])
+
+# create DFs
+market_data = pd.DataFrame(index=index,
+                        data=np.random.randn(len(index), 1),
+                        columns=['Prediction'])
+
+```
+
+1. Unstack the DataFrame.
+
+The first 3 rows of the DataFrame should like this:
+
+| Date                | ('Prediction', 'AAPL') | ('Prediction', 'AMZN') | ('Prediction', 'DAI') | ('Prediction', 'FB') | ('Prediction', 'GE') |
+| :------------------ | ---------------------: | ---------------------: | --------------------: | -------------------: | -------------------: |
+| 2021-01-01 00:00:00 |               0.382312 |              -0.072392 |             -0.551167 |           -0.0585555 |              1.05955 |
+| 2021-01-04 00:00:00 |              -0.560953 |               0.503199 |              -0.79517 |             -3.23136 |              1.50271 |
+| 2021-01-05 00:00:00 |               0.211489 |                1.84867 |              0.287906 |             -1.81119 |              1.20321 |
+
+2. Plot the 5 times series in the same plot using Pandas built-in visualization functions with a title.

subjects/ai/data-wrangling-with-pandas/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy` and `import pandas` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Concatenate
+
+##### This question is validated if the outputted DataFrame is:
+
+    |    | letter   |   number |
+    |---:|:---------|---------:|
+    |  0 | a        |        1 |
+    |  1 | b        |        2 |
+    |  2 | c        |        1 |
+    |  3 | d        |        2 |
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Merge
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+    |    |   id | Feature1_x   | Feature2_x   | Feature1_y   | Feature2_y   |
+    |---:|-----:|:-------------|:-------------|:-------------|:-------------|
+    |  0 |    1 | A            | B            | K            | L            |
+    |  1 |    2 | C            | D            | M            | N            |
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is:
+
+    |    |   id | Feature1_df1   | Feature2_df1   | Feature1_df2   | Feature2_df2   |
+    |---:|-----:|:---------------|:---------------|:---------------|:---------------|
+    |  0 |    1 | A              | B              | K              | L              |
+    |  1 |    2 | C              | D              | M              | N              |
+    |  2 |    3 | E              | F              | nan            | nan            |
+    |  3 |    4 | G              | H              | nan            | nan            |
+    |  4 |    5 | I              | J              | nan            | nan            |
+    |  5 |    6 | nan            | nan            | O              | P              |
+    |  6 |    7 | nan            | nan            | Q              | R              |
+    |  7 |    8 | nan            | nan            | S              | T              |
+
+    Note: Check that the suffixes are set using the suffix parameters rather than manually changing the columns' name.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Merge MultiIndex
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the outputted DataFrame's shape is `(1305, 5)` and if `merged.head()` returns a table as below. One of the answers that returns the correct DataFrame is `market_data.merge(alternative_data, how='left', left_index=True, right_index=True)`
+
+|                                                      |      Open |    Close | Close_Adjusted |     Twitter |    Reddit |
+| :--------------------------------------------------- | --------: | -------: | -------------: | ----------: | --------: |
+| (Timestamp('2021-01-01 00:00:00', freq='B'), 'AAPL') | 0.0991792 | -0.31603 |       0.634787 | -0.00159041 |   1.06053 |
+| (Timestamp('2021-01-01 00:00:00', freq='B'), 'FB')   | -0.123753 |  1.00269 |       0.713264 |   0.0142127 | -0.487028 |
+| (Timestamp('2021-01-01 00:00:00', freq='B'), 'GE')   |  -1.37775 | -1.01504 |         1.2858 |    0.109835 |   0.04273 |
+| (Timestamp('2021-01-01 00:00:00', freq='B'), 'AMZN') |   1.06324 | 0.841241 |      -0.799481 |   -0.805677 |  0.511769 |
+| (Timestamp('2021-01-01 00:00:00', freq='B'), 'DAI')  | -0.603453 | -2.06141 |      -0.969064 |     1.49817 |  0.730055 |
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the numbers that are missing in the DataFrame are equal to 0 and if `filled_df.sum().sum() == merged_df.sum().sum()` gives: `True`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Groupby Apply
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated and if the for loop hasn't been used. The goal is to use `groupby` and `apply`.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+```python
+        df = pd.DataFrame(range(1,11), columns=['sequence'])
+        print(winsorize(df, [0.20, 0.80]).to_markdown())
+```
+
+    |    |   sequence |
+    |---:|-----------:|
+    |  0 |        2.8 |
+    |  1 |        2.8 |
+    |  2 |        3   |
+    |  3 |        4   |
+    |  4 |        5   |
+    |  5 |        6   |
+    |  6 |        7   |
+    |  7 |        8   |
+    |  8 |        8.2 |
+    |  9 |        8.2 |
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is a Pandas Series or DataFrame with the first 11 rows equal to the output below. The code below give a solution.
+
+    |    |   sequence |
+    |---:|-----------:|
+    |  0 |       1.45 |
+    |  1 |       2    |
+    |  2 |       3    |
+    |  3 |       4    |
+    |  4 |       5    |
+    |  5 |       6    |
+    |  6 |       7    |
+    |  7 |       8    |
+    |  8 |       9    |
+    |  9 |       9.55 |
+    | 10 |      11.45 |
+
+```python
+    def winsorize(df_series, quantiles):
+    """
+        df: pd.DataFrame or pd.Series
+        quantiles: list [0.05, 0.95]
+
+    """
+    min_value = np.quantile(df_series, quantiles[0])
+    max_value = np.quantile(df_series, quantiles[1])
+
+    return df_series.clip(lower = min_value, upper = max_value)
+
+
+    df.groupby("group")[['sequence']].apply(winsorize, [0.05,0.95])
+```
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/how-to-use-the-split-apply-combine-strategy-in-pandas-groupby-29e0eb44b62e
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Groupby Agg
+
+##### The question is validated if the output is as below. The columns don't have to be MultiIndex. A solution could be `df.groupby('product').agg({'value':['min','max','mean']})`
+
+| product      | ('value', 'min') | ('value', 'max') | ('value', 'mean') |
+| :----------- | ---------------: | ---------------: | ----------------: |
+| chair        |            22.89 |            32.12 |            27.505 |
+| mobile phone |              100 |           111.22 |            105.61 |
+| table        |            20.45 |            99.99 |             51.22 |
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Unstack
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is similar (as the values are generated randomly, it's obvious the audit doesn't require to match the values below) to what `unstacked_df.head()`returns:
+
+    | Date                |   ('Prediction', 'AAPL') |   ('Prediction', 'AMZN') |   ('Prediction', 'DAI') |   ('Prediction', 'FB') |   ('Prediction', 'GE') |
+    |:--------------------|-------------------------:|-------------------------:|------------------------:|-----------------------:|-----------------------:|
+    | 2021-01-01 00:00:00 |                 0.382312 |                -0.072392 |               -0.551167 |             -0.0585555 |                1.05955 |
+    | 2021-01-04 00:00:00 |                -0.560953 |                 0.503199 |               -0.79517  |             -3.23136   |                1.50271 |
+    | 2021-01-05 00:00:00 |                 0.211489 |                 1.84867  |                0.287906 |             -1.81119   |                1.20321 |
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the answer is: `unstacked.plot(title = 'Stocks 2021')`. The title can be anything else.

subjects/ai/emotions-detector/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,152 @@
+# Emotions detection with Deep Learning
+
+Cameras are everywhere. Videos and images have become one of the most interesting data sets for artificial intelligence.
+Image processing is a quite board research area, not just filtering, compression, and enhancement. Besides, we are even interested in the question, “what is in images?”, i.e., content analysis of visual inputs, which is part of the main task of computer vision. The study of computer vision could make possible such tasks as 3D reconstruction of scenes, motion capturing, and object recognition, which are crucial for even higher-level intelligence such as
+image and video understanding, and motion understanding.
+For this 2 months project we will focus on two tasks:
+
+- emotion classfication
+- face tracking
+
+With the computing power exponentially increasing the computer vision field has been developping exponentially. This is a key element because the computer power allows to use more easily a type of neural networks very powerful on images: CNN's (Convolutional Neural Networks). Before the CNN's were democratized, the algorithms used relied a lot on human analysis to extract features which obviously time consuming and not reliable. If you're interested in the "old school methodology" this article explains it: towardsdatascience.com/classifying-facial-emotions-via-machine-learning-5aac111932d3.
+The history behind this field is fascinating ! Here is a short summary of its history https://kapernikov.com/basic-introduction-to-computer-vision/
+
+### Project goal and suggested timeline
+
+The goal of the project is to implement a **system that detects the emotion on a face from a webcam video stream**. To achieve this exciting task you'll have to understand how to:
+
+- deal with images in Python
+- detect a face in an image
+- train a CNN to detect the emotion on a face
+
+That is why I suggest to start the project with a preliminary step. The goal of this step is to understand how CNNs work and how to classify images. This preliminary step should take approximately **two weeks**.
+
+Then starts the emotion detection in a webcam video stream step that will last until the end of the project !
+
+The two steps are detailed below.
+
+### Preliminary:
+
+- Take this lesson. This course is a reference for many reasons and one of them is the creator: **Andrew Ng**. He explains the basics of CNNs but also some more advanced topics as transfer learning, siamese networks etc ... I suggest to focus on Week 1 and 2 and to spend less time on Week 3 and 4. Don't worry the time scoping of such MOOCs are conservative ;-). Here is the link: https://www.coursera.org/learn/convolutional-neural-networks . You can attend the lessons for free !
+
+- Participate to this challenge: https://www.kaggle.com/c/digit-recognizer/code . The MNIST dataset is a reference in computer vision. Researchers use it as a benchmark to compare their models. Start first with a logistic regression to understand how to handle images in Python. And then train your first CNN on this data set.
+
+### Face emotions classification
+
+Emotion detection is one of the most researched topics in the modern-day machine learning arena. The ability to accurately detect and identify an emotion opens up numerous doors for Advanced Human Computer Interaction. The aim of this project is to detect up to seven distinct facial emotions in real time. This project runs on top of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) that is built with the help of Keras whose backend is TensorFlow in Python. The facial emotions that can be detected and classified by this system are Happy, Sad, Angry, Surprise, Fear, Disgust and Neutral.
+
+Your goal is to implement a program that takes as input a video stream that contains a person's face and that predicts the emotion of the person.
+
+**Step 1**: **Fit the emotion classifier**
+
+- Train a CNN on the dataset `train.csv`. Here is an example of architecture you can implement: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-VGG-neural-network . **The CNN has to perform more than 70% on the test set**. You will see that the CNNs take a lot of time to train. You don't want to overfit the neural network. I strongly suggest to use early stopping, callbacks and to monitor the training using the tensorboard.
+
+You have to save the trained model in `my_own_model.pkl` and to explain the chosen architecture in `my_own_model_architecture.txt`. Use `model.summary())` to print the architecture. It is also expected that you explains the iterations and how you end up choosing your final architecture. Save a screenshot of the tensorboard while the model's training in `tensorboard.png` and save a plot with the learning curves showing the model training and stopping BEFORE the model starts overfitting in `learning_curves.png`.
+
+- Optional: Use a pre-trained CNN to improve the accuracy. You will find some huge CNN's architecture that perform well. The issue is that it is expensive to train them from scratch. You'll need a lot of GPUs, memory and time. **Pre-trained CNNs** solve partially this issue because they are already trained on a dataset and perform well on some use cases. However, building a CNN from scratch is required, as mentioned, this step is optional and doesn't replace the first one. Similarly, save the model and explain the chosen architecture.
+
+**Step 2**: **Classify emotions from a video stream**
+
+- Use the video stream outputted by your computer's webcam and preprocess it to make it compatible with the CNN you trained. One of the preprocessing steps is: face detection. As you may have seen the training samples are imaged centered on a face. To do so, I suggest to use a pre-trained model to detect faces. OpenCV for image processing tasks where we identify a face from a live webcam feed which is then processed and fed into the trained neural network for emotion detection. The preprocessing pipeline will be corrected with a functional test in `preprocessing_test`:
+
+  - **Input**: Video stream of 20 sec with a face on it
+  - **Output**: 20 (or 21) images cropped and centered on the face with 48 x 48 grayscale pixels
+
+- Predict at least one emotion per second from the video stream. The minimum requirement is printing in the prompt the predicted emotion with its associated probability. If there's any problem related to the webcam use as input the a recorded video stream.
+
+For that step, I suggest again to use **OpenCV** as much as possible. This link shows how to work with a video stream with OpenCV. OpenCV documentation may become deprecated in the futur. However, OpenCV will always provide tools to work with video streams, so search on the internet for OpenCV documentation and more specifically "opencv video streams". https://docs.opencv.org/4.x/dd/d43/tutorial_py_video_display.html
+
+- Optional: **(very cool)** Hack the CNN. Take a picture for which the prediction of your CNN is **Happy**. Now, hack the CNN: using the same image **SLIGHTLY** modified make the CNN predict **Sad**. https://medium.com/@ageitgey/machine-learning-is-fun-part-8-how-to-intentionally-trick-neural-networks-b55da32b7196
+
+### Deliverable
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   train.csv
+│   │   test.csv
+│   │   xxx.csv
+│
+└───results
+│   │
+|   |───model (free format)
+│   │   │   my_own_model.pkl
+│   │   │   my_own_model_architecture.txt
+│   │   │   tensorboard.png
+│   │   │   learning_curves.png
+│   │   │   pre_trained_model.pkl (optional)
+│   │   │   pre_trained_model_architecture.txt (optional)
+│   │
+|   |───hack_cnn (free format)
+│   │   │   hacked_image.png   (optional)
+│   │   │   input_image.png
+│   │
+|   |───preprocessing_test
+|   |   |   input_video.mp4  (free format)
+│   │   │   image0.png  (free format)
+│   │   │   image1.png
+│   │   │   imagen.png
+│   │   │   image20.png
+|
+|───scripts
+│   │   train.py
+│   │   predict.py
+│   │   preprocess.py
+│   │   predict_live_stream.py
+│   │   hack_the_cnn.py
+
+```
+
+- Run **predict.py** expected output:
+
+```prompt
+python predict.py
+
+Accuracy on test set: 72%
+
+```
+
+- Run **predict_live_stream.py** expected output:
+
+```prompt
+python predict_live_stream.py
+
+Reading video stream ...
+
+Preprocessing ...
+11:11:11s : Happy , 73%
+
+Preprocessing ...
+11:11:12s : Happy , 93%
+
+Preprocessing ...
+11:11:13s : Surprise , 71%
+
+Preprocessing ...
+11:11:14s : Neutral , 82%
+
+...
+
+Preprocessing ...
+11:13:29s : Happy , 63%
+
+```
+
+### Useful ressources:
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/what-is-computer-vision/
+
+- Use a pre-trained CNN: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1812.06387.pdf
+
+- Hack the CNN https://medium.com/@ageitgey/machine-learning-is-fun-part-8-how-to-intentionally-trick-neural-networks-b55da32b7196
+
+- http://ice.dlut.edu.cn/valse2018/ppt/WeihongDeng_VALSE2018.pdf
+
+- https://arxiv.org/pdf/1812.06387.pdf
+
+### Files needed for this project
+
+[link](https://assets.01-edu.org/ai-branch/project3/challenges-in-representation-learning-facial-expression-recognition-challenge.zip)

subjects/ai/emotions-detector/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+##### Computer vision
+
+##### Preliminary
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   train.csv
+│   │   test.csv
+│   │   xxx.csv
+│
+└───results
+│   │
+|   |───model (free format)
+│   │   │   my_own_model.pkl
+│   │   │   my_own_model_architecture.txt
+│   │   │   tensorboard.png
+│   │   │   learning_curves.png
+│   │   │   pre_trained_model.pkl (optional)
+│   │   │   pre_trained_model_architecture.txt (optional)
+│   │
+|   |───hack_cnn (free format)
+│   │   │   hacked_image.png   (optional)
+│   │   │   input_image.png
+│   │
+|   |───preprocessing_test
+|   |   |   input_video.mp4  (free format)
+│   │   │   image0.png  (free format)
+│   │   │   image1.png
+│   │   │   imagen.png
+│   │   │   image20.png
+|
+|───scripts
+│   │   train.py
+│   │   predict.py
+│   │   preprocess.py
+│   │   predict_live_stream.py
+│   │   hack_the_cnn.py
+
+```
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+###### Does the readme file summurize how to run the code and explain the global approach ?
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+###### Do the text files explain the chosen architectures ?
+
+##### CNN emotion classifier
+
+###### Is the model trained only the training set ?
+
+###### Is the accuracy on the test set is higher than 70% ?
+
+###### Do the learning curves prove the model the model is not overfitting ?
+
+###### Has the training been stopped early enough to avoid the overfitting ?
+
+###### Does the screenshot show the usage of the tensorboard to monitor the training ?
+
+###### Does the text document explain why the architecture was chosen and what were the previous iterations ?
+
+###### Does the following command `python predict.py ` run without any error and returns an accuracy greater than 70% ?
+
+    ```prompt
+    python predict.py
+
+    Accuracy on test set: 72%
+
+    ```
+
+##### Face detection on the video stream
+
+###### Does the preprocessing pipeline take as input the webcam video stream of minimum 20 sec and save in a separate folder at least 20 preprocessed\* images ?
+
+###### Do all images contain a face ?
+
+###### Are all images reshaped and centered on the face ?
+
+###### Is the algorithm that detects the face imported via cv2 ?
+
+###### Is the image converted to 48 x 48 grayscale pixels' image
+
+###### If there's an issue related to the webcam, does the code takes as input a video recorded video stream ?
+
+###### Does the following command `predict_live_stream.py` run without any error and return the following ?
+
+    ```prompt
+    python predict_live_stream.py
+
+    Reading video stream ...
+
+    Preprocessing ...
+    11:11:11s : Happy , 73%
+
+    Preprocessing ...
+    11:11:12s : Happy , 93%
+
+    Preprocessing ...
+    11:11:13s : Surprise , 71%
+
+    Preprocessing ...
+    11:11:14s : Neutral , 82%
+
+    ...
+
+    Preprocessing ...
+    11:13:29s : Happy , 63%
+
+    ```
+
+##### Hack the CNN - guidelines:
+
+The neural network trains by updating its weights given the training error. If an image is misclassfied the neural network changes its weight to classify it correctly. The trick is to keep the neural network's weights unchanged and to modify the input pixels in order to force the neural network to predict the wanted class.
+This part is validated if:
+
+##### Choose an image from the database that gives more than 90% probability of `Happy`
+
+###### Does the neural network modifies the input pixels to predict Sad ?
+
+###### Can you recognize easily the chosen image ? The modified image is SLIGHTLY changed. It means that you recognies very easily the original image.
+
+Here are three ressources that detail similar approaches:
+
+- https://github.com/XC-Li/Facial_Expression_Recognition/tree/master/Code/RAFDB
+- https://github.com/karansjc1/emotion-detection/tree/master/with%20flask
+- https://www.kaggle.com/drbeanesp21/aliaj-final-facial-expression-recognition (simplified)

subjects/ai/forest-cover-type-prediction/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+# Forest Cover Type Prediction
+
+The goal of this project is to use cartographic variables to classify forest categories. You will have to analyse the data, create features and to train a machine learning model on the cartographic data to make it as accurate as possible.
+
+### Data
+
+The input files are `train.csv`, `test.csv` and `covtype.info`:
+
+- `train.csv`
+- `test.csv`
+- `covtype.info`
+
+The train data set is used to **analyse the data and calibrate the models**. The goal is to get the accuracy as high as possible on the test set. The test set will be available at the end of the last day to prevent from the overfitting of the test set.
+
+The data is described in `covtype.info`.
+
+### Structure
+
+The structure of the project is:
+
+```console
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   train.csv
+│   |   test.csv (not available first day)
+|   |   covtype.info
+│
+└───notebook
+│   │   EDA.ipynb
+|
+|───scripts
+|   │   preprocessing_feature_engineering.py
+|   │   model_selection.py
+│   |   predict.py
+│
+└───results
+    │   plots
+    │   test_predictions.csv
+    │   best_model.pkl
+
+```
+
+### 1. EDA and feature engineering
+
+- Create a Jupyter Notebook to analyse the data sets and perform EDA (Exploratory Data Analysis). This notebook will not be evaluated.
+
+- *Hint: Examples of interesting features*
+
+  - `Distance to hydrology = sqrt((Horizontal_Distance_To_Hydrology)^2 + (Vertical_Distance_To_Hydrology)^2)`
+  - `Horizontal_Distance_To_Fire_Points - Horizontal_Distance_To_Roadways`
+
+### 2. Model Selection
+
+The model selection approach is a key step because, t should return the best model and guaranty that the results are reproducible on the final test set. The goal of this step is to make sure that the results on the test set are not due to test set overfitting. It implies to split the data set as shown below:
+
+```console
+DATA
+└───TRAIN FILE (0)
+│   └───── Train (1)
+│   |           Fold0:
+|   |                  Train
+|   |                  Validation
+|   |           Fold1:
+|   |                   Train
+|   |                   Validation
+... ...         ...
+|   |
+|   └───── Test (1)
+│
+└─── TEST FILE (0) (available last day)
+
+```
+
+**Rules:**
+
+- Split train test
+- Cross validation: at least 5 folds
+- Grid search on at least 5 different models:
+  - Gradient Boosting, KNN, Random Forest, SVM, Logistic Regression. *Remember that for some model scaling the data is important and for others it doesn't matter.*
+
+- Train accuracy score < **0.98**. Train set (0). Write the result in the `README.md`
+- Test (last day) accuracy > **0.65**. Test set (0). Write the result in the `README.md`
+- Display the confusion matrix for the best model in a DataFrame. Precise the index and columns names (True label and Predicted label)
+- Plot the learning curve for the best model
+- Save the trained model as a [pickle](https://www.datacamp.com/community/tutorials/pickle-python-tutorial) file
+
+> Advice: As the grid search takes time, I suggest to prepare and test the code. Once you are confident it works, run the gridsearch at night and analyse the results
+
+**Hint**: The confusion matrix shows the misclassifications class per class. Try to detect if the model misclassifies badly one class with another. Then, do some research on the internet on the two forest cover types, find the differences and create some new features that underline these differences. More generally, the methodology of a models learning is a cycle with several iterations. More details [here](https://serokell.io/blog/machine-learning-testing)
+
+### 3. Predict (last day)
+
+Once you have selected the best model and you are confident it will perform well on new data, you're ready to predict on the test set:
+
+- Load the trained model
+- Predict on the test set and compute the accuracy
+- Save the predictions in a csv file
+- Add your score on the `README.md`
+
+### Files needed for this project
+
+[link](https://assets.01-edu.org/ai-branch/piscine-ai/raid02/raid02-20221024T133335Z-001.zip)

subjects/ai/forest-cover-type-prediction/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+# Forest Cover Type Prediction
+
+The goal of this project is to use cartographic variables to classify forest categories. You will have to analyse the data, create features and to train a machine learning model on the cartographic data to make it as accurate as possible.
+
+### Preliminary
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+
+The expected structure of the project is:
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   train.csv
+│   |   test.csv (not available first day)
+|   |   covtype.info
+│
+└───notebook
+│   │   EDA.ipynb
+|
+|───scripts
+|   │   preprocessing_feature_engineering.py
+|   │   model_selection.py
+│   |   predict.py
+│
+└───results
+    │   confusion_matrix_heatmap.png
+    │   learning_curve_best_model.png
+    │   test_predictions.csv
+    │   best_model.pkl
+
+```
+
+###### Does the readme file contain a description of the project, explain how to run the code from an empty environment, give a summary of the implementation of each python file, especially details on the feature engineering which is a key step ?
+
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+
+
+### 1. Preprocessing and features engineering:
+
+
+
+## 2. Model selection and predict
+
+### Data splitting
+
+###### Does data splitting (cross-validation) structure as follow ?
+
+```
+DATA
+└───TRAIN FILE (0)
+│   └───── Train (1):
+│   |           Fold0:
+|   |                  Train
+|   |                  Validation
+|   |           Fold1:
+|   |                   Train
+|   |                   Validation
+... ...         ...
+|   |
+|   └───── Test (1)
+│
+└─── TEST FILE (0)(available last day)
+
+```
+
+##### The train set (0) id divised in a train set (1) and test set (1). The ratio is less than 33%.
+##### The cross validation splits the train set (1) is at least 5 folds. If the cross validation is stratified that's a good point but it is not a requirement.
+
+### Gridsearch
+
+##### It contains at least these 5 different models: Gradient Boosting, KNN, Random Forest, SVM, Logistic Regression.
+
+There are many options:
+- 5 grid searches on 1 model
+- 1 grid search on 5 models
+- 1 grid search on a pipeline that contains the preprocessing
+- 5 grid searches on a pipeline that contains the preprocessing
+
+### Training
+
+###### Is the **target is removed from the X** matrix ?
+
+### Results
+
+##### Run predict.py on the test set, check that: Test (last day) accuracy > **0.65**.
+
+##### Train accuracy score < **0.98**.
+It can be checked on the learning curve. If you are not sure, load the model, load the training set (0), score on the training set (0).
+
+##### The confusion matrix is represented as a DataFrame. Example:
+![alt text][confusion_matrix]
+
+[confusion_matrix]: ../images/w2_weekend_confusion_matrix.png "Confusion matrix "
+
+##### The learning curve for the best model is plotted. Example:
+
+![alt text][logo_learning_curve]
+
+[logo_learning_curve]: ../images/w2_weekend_learning_curve.png "Learning curve "
+
+Note: The green line on the plot shows the accuracy on the validation set not on the test set (1) and not on the test set (0).
+
+###### Is the trained model saved as a pickle file ?

subjects/ai/kaggle-titanic/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+# Your first Kaggle: Titanic
+
+### Introduction
+
+The goal of this **1 week** project is to get the highest possible score on a Data Science competition. More precisely you will have to predict who survived the Titanic crash.
+
+![alt text][titanic]
+
+[titanic]: titanic.jpg "Titanic"
+
+### Kaggle
+
+Kaggle is an online community of data scientists and machine learning practitioners. Kaggle allows users to find and publish data sets, explore and build models in a web-based data-science environment, work with other data scientists and machine learning engineers, and enter competitions to solve data science challenges. It’s a crowd-sourced platform to attract, nurture, train and challenge data scientists from all around the world to solve data science, machine learning and predictive analytics problems.
+
+### Titanic - Machine Learning from Disaster
+
+One of the first Kaggle competition I did was: Titanic - Machine Learning from Disaster. This is a not-to-be-missed Kaggle competition.
+
+You can see more [here](https://www.kaggle.com/c/titanic)
+
+The sinking of the Titanic is one of the most infamous shipwrecks in history. On April 15, 1912, during her maiden voyage, the widely considered “unsinkable” RMS Titanic sank after colliding with an iceberg. Unfortunately, there were not enough lifeboats for everyone onboard, resulting in the death of 1502 out of 2224 passengers and crew.
+
+While there was some element of luck involved in surviving, it seems some groups of people were more likely to survive than others.
+
+In this challenge, you have to build a predictive model that answers the question: **“what sorts of people were more likely to survive?”** using passenger data (ie name, age, gender, socio-economic class, etc). **You will have to submit your prediction on Kaggle**.
+
+### Preliminary
+
+The way the Kaggle platform works is explained in the challenge overview page. If you need more details, I suggest this [resource](https://towardsdatascience.com/getting-started-with-kaggle-f9138b35ae18) that gives detailed explanations.
+
+- Create a username following this structure: username*01EDU* location_MM_YYYY. Submit the description profile and push it on GitHub the first day of the week. Do not touch this file anymore.
+
+- It is possible to have different personal accounts merged in a team for one single competition.
+
+### Deliverables
+
+```console
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│   username.txt
+│
+└───data
+│   │   train.csv
+│   |   test.csv
+|   |   gender_submission.csv
+│
+└───notebook
+│   │   EDA.ipynb
+|
+|───scripts
+│
+
+```
+
+- `README.md` introduction of the project, shows the username, describes the features engineering and the best score on the **leaderboard**. Note the score on the test set using the exact same pipeline that led to the best score on the leaderboard.
+
+- `environment.yml` contains all libraries required to run the code.
+
+- `username.txt` contains the username, the last modified date of the file **has to correspond to the first day of the project**.
+
+- `EDA.ipynb` contains the exploratory data analysis. This file should contain all steps of data analysis that contributed or not to improve the accuracy. It has to be commented so that the reviewer can understand the analysis and run it without any problem.
+
+- `scripts` contains python file(s) that perform(s) the feature engineering, the model's training and prediction on the test set. It could also be one single Jupyter Notebook. It has to be commented to help the reviewers understand the approach and run the code without any bugs.
+- **Submit your predictions on the Kaggle's competition platform**. Check your ranking and score in the leaderboard.
+
+### Scores
+
+In order to validate the project you will have to score at least **79% accuracy on the Leaderboard**:
+
+- 79% accuracy is the minimum score to validate the project.
+
+Scores indication:
+
+- 79% difficult - minimum required
+- 81% very difficult: smart feature engineering needed
+- More than 83%: excellent that corresponds to the top 2% on Kaggle
+- More than 85%: cheating
+
+#### Cheating
+
+It is impossible to get 100%. Who would have predicted that Rose wouldn't let [Jack on the door](https://www.insider.com/jack-and-rose-werent-on-a-door-in-titanic-2019-7) ?
+
+All people having 100% of accuracy on the Leaderboard cheated, there's no point to compare with them or to cheat. The Kaggle community estimates that having more than 85% is almost considered as cheated submissions as they are element of luck involved in the surviving.
+
+**You can't used external data sets than the ones provided in that competition.**
+
+### The key points
+
+- **Feature engineering**:
+  Put yourself in the shoes of an investigator trying to understand what happened exactly in that boat during the crash. Do not hesitate to watch the movie to try to find as many insights as possible. Without a smart the feature engineering there's no way to validate the project ;-)
+
+- The leaderboard evaluates on test data for which you don't have the labels. It means that there's no point to over fit the train set. Check the over fitting on the train set by dividing the data and by cross-validating the accuracy.
+
+### Advice
+
+Don't try to build the perfect model the first day. Iterate a lot and test your assumptions:
+
+Iteration 1:
+
+- Predict all passengers die
+
+Iteration 2
+
+- Fit a logistic regression with a basic feature engineering
+
+Iteration 3:
+
+- Perform an EDA. Make assumptions and check them. Example: What if first class passengers survived more. Check the assumption through EDA and create relevant features to help the model capture the information.
+
+- Run a gridsearch
+
+Iteration 4:
+
+- Good luck !

subjects/ai/kaggle-titanic/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+#### First Kaggle: Titanic
+
+##### Preliminary
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│   username.txt
+│
+└───data
+│   │   train.csv
+│   |   test.csv
+|   |   gender_submission.csv
+│
+└───notebook
+│   │   EDA.ipynb
+|
+|───scripts
+│
+
+```
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+###### Does the readme file give an introduction of the project, show the username, describe the feature engineering and show the best score the on the leaderboard ?
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+##### Feature engineering
+
+###### Does the notebook can be executed without any arror ?
+
+###### Does the notebook explain the feature engineering that contributed to improve the accuracy ?
+
+##### Scripts
+
+###### Can you train the best model on the train data with feature engineering without any error ?
+
+###### Can you predict on the test set using the best model without any error ?
+
+###### Is the score you get **on the test set** with the best model is close to what is expected ?
+
+##### Final score
+
+###### Is the accuracy associated with the username in `username.txt` is higher than 79% ? The best submission score can be accessed from the user profile.
+
+##### Examples
+
+Here are two very good submissions explained and detailed:
+
+- https://www.kaggle.com/konstantinmasich/titanic-0-82-0-83
+- https://www.kaggle.com/sreevishnudamodaran/ultimate-eda-fe-neural-network-model-top-2

subjects/ai/keras-2/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+# Keras 2
+
+The goal of this day is to learn to use Keras to build Neural Networks and train them on small data sets. This helps to understand the specifics of networks for classification and regression.
+
+Note:
+
+The audit will provide the code and output because it is not straightforward to reproduce results using Keras. There are many source of randomness. Even if all the seeds are fixed to a constant they may be other source of randomness. https://machinelearningmastery.com/reproducible-results-neural-networks-keras/
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Regression - Optimize
+- Exercise 2: Regression example
+- Exercise 3: Multi classification - Softmax
+- Exercise 4: Multi classification - Optimize
+- Exercise 5: Multi classification example
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+- Keras
+
+_Version of Keras I used to do the exercises: 2.4.3_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/tutorial-first-neural-network-python-keras/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter` and `keras`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Regression - Optimize
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to set up the optimization for a regression neural network. There's no code to run in that exercise. In W2D2E3, we implemented a neural network designed for regression. We will be using this neural network:
+
+    ```
+    model = keras.Sequential()
+    model.add(Dense(8, input_shape=(5,), activation= 'sigmoid'))
+    model.add(Dense(4, activation= 'sigmoid'))
+    model.add(Dense(1, activation= 'linear'))
+
+    ```
+
+As a reminder, the main difference between a regression and classification neural network's architecture is the output layer activation function.
+
+1. Fill this chunk of code to set up the optimization part of the regression neural network:
+
+```
+model.compile(
+  optimizer='adam',
+  loss='',#TODO1
+  metrics=[''] #TODO2
+)
+```
+
+Hint:
+
+- Mean Squared Error (MSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) are common loss functions used for regression problems. Mean Absolute Error is less sensitive to outliers. Different loss functions are used for classification problems. Similarly, evaluation metrics used for regression differ from classification.
+
+https://keras.io/api/metrics/regression_metrics/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Regression example
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to train a neural network to perform a regression on a data set.
+The data set is Auto MPG Dataset and the go is to build a model to predict the fuel efficiency of late-1970s and early 1980s automobiles. To do this, provide the model with a description of many automobiles from that time period. This description includes attributes like: cylinders, displacement, horsepower, and weight.
+
+https://www.tensorflow.org/tutorials/keras/regression
+
+1. Preprocess the data set as follow:
+
+   - Drop the columns: **model year**, **origin**, **car name**
+   - Split train test without shuffling the data. Keep 20% for the test set.
+   - Scale the data using Standard Scaler
+
+2. Train a neural network on the train set and predict on the test set. The neural network should have 2 hidden layers and the loss should be **mean_squared_error**. The expected **mean absolute error** on the test set is maximum 10.
+   _Hint_: inscrease the number of epochs
+   **Warning**: Do no forget to evaluate the neural network on the **SCALED** test set.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Multi classification - Softmax
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to a neural network architecture for multi-class data. This is an important type of problem on which to practice with neural networks because the three class values require specialized handling. A multi-classification neural network uses as output layer a **softmax** layer. The **softmax** activation function is an extension of the sigmoid as it is designed to output the probabilities to belong to each class in a multi-class problem. This output layer has to contain as much neurons as classes in the multi-classification problem. This article explains in detail how it works. https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/crash-course/multi-class-neural-networks/softmax
+
+Let us assume we want to classify images and we know they contain either apples, bears, candies, eggs or dogs (extension of the example in the link above).
+
+1. Create the architecture for a multi-class neural network with the following architecture and return `print(model.summary())`:
+
+   - 5 inputs variables
+   - hidden layer 1: 16 neurons and sigmoid as activation function
+   - hidden layer 2: 8 neurons and sigmoid as activation function
+   - output layer: The number of neurons and the activation function should be adapted to this multi-classification problem.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Multi classification - Optimize
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to optimize a multi-classification neural network. As learnt previously, the loss function used in binary classification is the log loss - also called in Keras `binary_crossentropy`. This function is defined for binary classification and can be extended to multi-classfication. In Keras, the extended loss that supports multi-classification is `binary_crossentropy`. There's no code to run in that exercise.
+
+1. Fill the chunk of code below in order to optimize the neural network defined in the previous exercise. Choose the adapted loss, adam as optimizer and the accuracy as metric.
+
+```
+model.compile(loss='',#TODO1
+              optimizer='', #TODO2
+              metrics=['']) #TODO3
+```
+
+---
+
+---

subjects/ai/keras-2/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas` and `import keras` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Regression - Optimize
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the chunk of code is:
+
+```
+model.compile(
+  optimizer='adam',
+  loss='mse',
+  metrics=['mse']
+)
+```
+
+All regression metrics or losses used are correct. As explained before, the loss functions are chosen thanks to nice mathematical properties. That is why most of the time the loss function used for regression is the MSE or MAE.
+
+https://keras.io/api/losses/regression_losses/
+https://keras.io/api/metrics/regression_metrics/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Regression example
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the input DataFrames are:
+
+X_train_scaled shape is (313, 5) and the first 5 rows are:
+
+|     | cylinders | displacement | horsepower |   weight | acceleration |
+| --: | --------: | -----------: | ---------: | -------: | -----------: |
+|   0 |   1.28377 |     0.884666 |    0.48697 | 0.455708 |     -1.19481 |
+|   1 |   1.28377 |      1.28127 |    1.36238 | 0.670459 |     -1.37737 |
+|   2 |   1.28377 |     0.986124 |   0.987205 | 0.378443 |     -1.55992 |
+|   3 |   1.28377 |     0.856996 |   0.987205 | 0.375034 |     -1.19481 |
+|   4 |   1.28377 |     0.838549 |   0.737087 | 0.393214 |     -1.74247 |
+
+The train target is:
+
+|     | mpg |
+| --: | --: |
+|   0 |  18 |
+|   1 |  15 |
+|   2 |  18 |
+|   3 |  16 |
+|   4 |  17 |
+
+X_test_scaled shape is (79, 5) and the first 5 rows are:
+
+|     | cylinders | displacement | horsepower |    weight | acceleration |
+| --: | --------: | -----------: | ---------: | --------: | -----------: |
+| 315 |  -1.00255 |    -0.554185 |    -0.5135 | -0.113552 |      1.76253 |
+| 316 |  0.140612 |     0.128347 |    -0.5135 |   0.31595 |      1.25139 |
+| 317 |  -1.00255 |     -1.05225 |  -0.813641 |  -1.03959 |     0.192584 |
+| 318 |  -1.00255 |    -0.710983 |    -0.5135 | -0.445337 |    0.0830525 |
+| 319 |  -1.00255 |    -0.840111 |  -0.888676 | -0.637363 |     0.813262 |
+
+The test target is:
+
+|     |  mpg |
+| --: | ---: |
+| 315 | 24.3 |
+| 316 | 19.1 |
+| 317 | 34.3 |
+| 318 | 29.8 |
+| 319 | 31.3 |
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the mean absolute error on the test set is smaller than 10. Here is an architecture that works:
+
+```
+# create model
+model = Sequential()
+model.add(Dense(30, input_dim=5, activation='sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(30, activation='sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(1))
+# Compile model
+model.compile(loss='mean_squared_error',
+                optimizer='adam', metrics='mean_absolute_error')
+```
+
+The output neuron has to be `Dense(1)` - by defaut the activation funtion is linear. The loss has to be **mean_squared_error** and the **input_dim** has to be **5**. All variations on the others parameters are accepted.
+
+_Hint_: To get the score on the test set, `evaluate` could have been used: `model.evaluate(X_test_scaled, y_test)`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Multi classification - Softmax
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the code that creates the neural network is:
+
+```
+model = keras.Sequential()
+model.add(Dense(16, input_shape=(5,), activation= 'sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(8, activation= 'sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(5, activation= 'softmax'))
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Multi classification - Optimize
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the chunk of code is:
+
+```
+model.compile(loss='categorical_crossentropy',
+              optimizer='adam',
+              metrics=['accuracy'])
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Multi classification - Optimize
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the chunk of code is:
+
+```
+model.compile(loss='categorical_crossentropy',
+              optimizer='adam',
+              metrics=['accuracy'])
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Multi classification example
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of the first ten values of the train labels are:
+
+```
+array([[0, 1, 0],
+       [0, 0, 1],
+       [0, 1, 0],
+       [0, 0, 1],
+       [0, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 0],
+       [0, 1, 0],
+       [1, 0, 0],
+       [0, 1, 0],
+       [0, 0, 1]])
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the accuracy on the test set is bigger than 90%. To evaluate the accuracy on the test set you can use: `model.evaluate(X_test_sc, y_test_multi_class)`.
+
+Here is an implementation that gives 96% accuracy on the test set.
+
+```
+model = Sequential()
+model.add(Dense(10, input_dim=4, activation='sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(3, activation='softmax'))
+# Compile model
+model.compile(loss='categorical_crossentropy', optimizer='adam', metrics=['accuracy'])
+model.fit(X_train_sc, y_train_multi_class, epochs = 1000, batch_size=20)
+```

subjects/ai/keras-2/auto-mpg.csv

@@ -0,0 +1,399 @@
+mpg,cylinders,displacement,horsepower,weight,acceleration,model year,origin,car name
+18,8,307,130,3504,12,70,1,chevrolet chevelle malibu
+15,8,350,165,3693,11.5,70,1,buick skylark 320
+18,8,318,150,3436,11,70,1,plymouth satellite
+16,8,304,150,3433,12,70,1,amc rebel sst
+17,8,302,140,3449,10.5,70,1,ford torino
+15,8,429,198,4341,10,70,1,ford galaxie 500
+14,8,454,220,4354,9,70,1,chevrolet impala
+14,8,440,215,4312,8.5,70,1,plymouth fury iii
+14,8,455,225,4425,10,70,1,pontiac catalina
+15,8,390,190,3850,8.5,70,1,amc ambassador dpl
+15,8,383,170,3563,10,70,1,dodge challenger se
+14,8,340,160,3609,8,70,1,plymouth 'cuda 340
+15,8,400,150,3761,9.5,70,1,chevrolet monte carlo
+14,8,455,225,3086,10,70,1,buick estate wagon (sw)
+24,4,113,95,2372,15,70,3,toyota corona mark ii
+22,6,198,95,2833,15.5,70,1,plymouth duster
+18,6,199,97,2774,15.5,70,1,amc hornet
+21,6,200,85,2587,16,70,1,ford maverick
+27,4,97,88,2130,14.5,70,3,datsun pl510
+26,4,97,46,1835,20.5,70,2,volkswagen 1131 deluxe sedan
+25,4,110,87,2672,17.5,70,2,peugeot 504
+24,4,107,90,2430,14.5,70,2,audi 100 ls
+25,4,104,95,2375,17.5,70,2,saab 99e
+26,4,121,113,2234,12.5,70,2,bmw 2002
+21,6,199,90,2648,15,70,1,amc gremlin
+10,8,360,215,4615,14,70,1,ford f250
+10,8,307,200,4376,15,70,1,chevy c20
+11,8,318,210,4382,13.5,70,1,dodge d200
+9,8,304,193,4732,18.5,70,1,hi 1200d
+27,4,97,88,2130,14.5,71,3,datsun pl510
+28,4,140,90,2264,15.5,71,1,chevrolet vega 2300
+25,4,113,95,2228,14,71,3,toyota corona
+25,4,98,?,2046,19,71,1,ford pinto
+19,6,232,100,2634,13,71,1,amc gremlin
+16,6,225,105,3439,15.5,71,1,plymouth satellite custom
+17,6,250,100,3329,15.5,71,1,chevrolet chevelle malibu
+19,6,250,88,3302,15.5,71,1,ford torino 500
+18,6,232,100,3288,15.5,71,1,amc matador
+14,8,350,165,4209,12,71,1,chevrolet impala
+14,8,400,175,4464,11.5,71,1,pontiac catalina brougham
+14,8,351,153,4154,13.5,71,1,ford galaxie 500
+14,8,318,150,4096,13,71,1,plymouth fury iii
+12,8,383,180,4955,11.5,71,1,dodge monaco (sw)
+13,8,400,170,4746,12,71,1,ford country squire (sw)
+13,8,400,175,5140,12,71,1,pontiac safari (sw)
+18,6,258,110,2962,13.5,71,1,amc hornet sportabout (sw)
+22,4,140,72,2408,19,71,1,chevrolet vega (sw)
+19,6,250,100,3282,15,71,1,pontiac firebird
+18,6,250,88,3139,14.5,71,1,ford mustang
+23,4,122,86,2220,14,71,1,mercury capri 2000
+28,4,116,90,2123,14,71,2,opel 1900
+30,4,79,70,2074,19.5,71,2,peugeot 304
+30,4,88,76,2065,14.5,71,2,fiat 124b
+31,4,71,65,1773,19,71,3,toyota corolla 1200
+35,4,72,69,1613,18,71,3,datsun 1200
+27,4,97,60,1834,19,71,2,volkswagen model 111
+26,4,91,70,1955,20.5,71,1,plymouth cricket
+24,4,113,95,2278,15.5,72,3,toyota corona hardtop
+25,4,97.5,80,2126,17,72,1,dodge colt hardtop
+23,4,97,54,2254,23.5,72,2,volkswagen type 3
+20,4,140,90,2408,19.5,72,1,chevrolet vega
+21,4,122,86,2226,16.5,72,1,ford pinto runabout
+13,8,350,165,4274,12,72,1,chevrolet impala
+14,8,400,175,4385,12,72,1,pontiac catalina
+15,8,318,150,4135,13.5,72,1,plymouth fury iii
+14,8,351,153,4129,13,72,1,ford galaxie 500
+17,8,304,150,3672,11.5,72,1,amc ambassador sst
+11,8,429,208,4633,11,72,1,mercury marquis
+13,8,350,155,4502,13.5,72,1,buick lesabre custom
+12,8,350,160,4456,13.5,72,1,oldsmobile delta 88 royale
+13,8,400,190,4422,12.5,72,1,chrysler newport royal
+19,3,70,97,2330,13.5,72,3,mazda rx2 coupe
+15,8,304,150,3892,12.5,72,1,amc matador (sw)
+13,8,307,130,4098,14,72,1,chevrolet chevelle concours (sw)
+13,8,302,140,4294,16,72,1,ford gran torino (sw)
+14,8,318,150,4077,14,72,1,plymouth satellite custom (sw)
+18,4,121,112,2933,14.5,72,2,volvo 145e (sw)
+22,4,121,76,2511,18,72,2,volkswagen 411 (sw)
+21,4,120,87,2979,19.5,72,2,peugeot 504 (sw)
+26,4,96,69,2189,18,72,2,renault 12 (sw)
+22,4,122,86,2395,16,72,1,ford pinto (sw)
+28,4,97,92,2288,17,72,3,datsun 510 (sw)
+23,4,120,97,2506,14.5,72,3,toyouta corona mark ii (sw)
+28,4,98,80,2164,15,72,1,dodge colt (sw)
+27,4,97,88,2100,16.5,72,3,toyota corolla 1600 (sw)
+13,8,350,175,4100,13,73,1,buick century 350
+14,8,304,150,3672,11.5,73,1,amc matador
+13,8,350,145,3988,13,73,1,chevrolet malibu
+14,8,302,137,4042,14.5,73,1,ford gran torino
+15,8,318,150,3777,12.5,73,1,dodge coronet custom
+12,8,429,198,4952,11.5,73,1,mercury marquis brougham
+13,8,400,150,4464,12,73,1,chevrolet caprice classic
+13,8,351,158,4363,13,73,1,ford ltd
+14,8,318,150,4237,14.5,73,1,plymouth fury gran sedan
+13,8,440,215,4735,11,73,1,chrysler new yorker brougham
+12,8,455,225,4951,11,73,1,buick electra 225 custom
+13,8,360,175,3821,11,73,1,amc ambassador brougham
+18,6,225,105,3121,16.5,73,1,plymouth valiant
+16,6,250,100,3278,18,73,1,chevrolet nova custom
+18,6,232,100,2945,16,73,1,amc hornet
+18,6,250,88,3021,16.5,73,1,ford maverick
+23,6,198,95,2904,16,73,1,plymouth duster
+26,4,97,46,1950,21,73,2,volkswagen super beetle
+11,8,400,150,4997,14,73,1,chevrolet impala
+12,8,400,167,4906,12.5,73,1,ford country
+13,8,360,170,4654,13,73,1,plymouth custom suburb
+12,8,350,180,4499,12.5,73,1,oldsmobile vista cruiser
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subjects/ai/keras/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+# Keras
+
+The goal of this day is to learn to use Keras to build Neural Networks. As explained on Keras website, Keras is a deep learning API written in Python, running on top of the machine learning platform TensorFlow. It was developed with a focus on enabling fast experimentation. Being able to go from idea to result as fast as possible is key to doing good research.
+And, TensorFlow was created by the Google Brain team, TensorFlow is an open source library for numerical computation and large-scale machine learning. TensorFlow bundles together a slew of machine learning and deep learning (aka neural networking) models and algorithms and makes them useful by way of a common metaphor. It uses Python to provide a convenient front-end API for building applications with the framework, while executing those applications in high-performance C++.
+
+There are two ways to build Keras models: sequential and functional.The sequential API allows you to create models layer-by-layer for most problems. It is limited in that it does not allow you to create models that share layers or have multiple inputs or outputs. The exercises focuses on the usage of the sequential API.
+
+Note:
+
+The audit will provide the code and output because it is not straightforward to reproduce results using Keras. There are many source of randomness. Even if all the seeds are fixed to a constant they may be other source of randomness. https://machinelearningmastery.com/reproducible-results-neural-networks-keras/
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Sequential
+- Exercise 2: Dense
+- Exercise 3: Architecture
+- Exercise 4: Optimize
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+- Keras
+
+_Version of Keras I used to do the exercises: 2.4.3_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/tutorial-first-neural-network-python-keras/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, and `keras`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Sequential
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to call the object `Sequential`.
+
+1. Put the object Sequential in a variable named `model` and print the variable `model`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Dense
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to create layers of neurons. Keras proposes options to create custom layers. The neural networks build in these exercises do not require custom layers. `Dense` layers do the job. A dense layer is simply a layer where each unit or neuron is connected to each neuron in the next layer. As seen yesterday, there are three main types of layers: input, hidden and output. The **input layer** that specifies the number of inputs (features) is not represented as a layer in Keras. However, `Dense` has a parameter `input_dim` that gives the number of inputs in the previous layer. The output layer as any hidden layer can be created using `Dense`, the only difference is that the output layer contains one single neuron.
+
+1. Create a `Dense` layer with these parameters and return the output of `get_config`:
+
+   - First hidden layer connected to 5 input variables.
+   - 8 neurons
+   - sigmoid as activation function
+
+2. Create a `Dense` layer with these parameters and return the output of `get_config`:
+
+   - Hidden layer (not the first one)
+   - 4 neurons
+   - sigmoid as activation function
+
+3. Create a `Dense` layer with these parameters and return the output of `get_config`:
+
+   - Output layer
+   - 1 neuron
+   - sigmoid as activation function
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Architecture
+
+The goal of this exercise is to combine the layers and to create a neural network.
+
+1. Create a neural network for regression with the following architecture and return `print(model.summary())`:
+
+   - 5 inputs variables
+   - hidden layer 1: 8 neurons and sigmoid as activation function
+   - hidden layer 2: 4 neurons and sigmoid as activation function
+   - output layer: 1 neuron. Find the adapted activation function
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Optimize
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to train the neural network. Once the architecture of the neural network is set there are two steps to train the neural network:
+
+- `compile`: The compilation step aims to set the loss function, to choose the algoithm to minimize the chosen loss function and to choose the metric the model outputs.
+
+  - The **optimizer**. We’ll stick with a pretty good default: the Adam gradient-based optimizer. Keras has many other optimizers you can look into as well.
+  - The **loss function**. Depending on the problem to solve: classification or regression Keras proposes different loss functions. In classification Keras distinguishes between `binary_crossentropy` (2 classes) and `categorical_crossentropy` (>2 classes), so we’ll use the latter.
+  - The **metric(s)**. A list of metrics. Depending on the problem to solve: classification or regression Keras proposes different loss functions. For example for classification the metric can be the accuracy.
+
+- `fit`: Training a model in Keras literally consists only of calling fit() and specifying some parameters. There are a lot of possible parameters, but we’ll only manually supply a few:
+
+  - The **training data**, commonly known as X and Y, respectively.
+  - The **number of epochs** (iterations over the entire dataset) to train for.
+  - The **batch size** (number of samples per gradient update) to use when training.
+
+  This article gives more details about **epoch** and **batch size**: https://machinelearningmastery.com/difference-between-a-batch-and-an-epoch/
+
+1. Create the following neural network (classification):
+
+   - Set the right number of inputs variables
+   - hidden layer 1: 10 neurons and sigmoid as activation function.
+   - hidden layer 2: 5 neurons and sigmoid as activation function.
+   - output layer: 1 neuron and sigmoid as activation function.
+   - Choose the accuracy metric, the adam optimizer, the adapted loss and epoch smaller than 50.
+
+   Import the breast cancer data set from `sklearn.datasets` using `load_breast_cancer` and train the neural network on the data set.
+
+2. Scale the data using `StandardScaler` from `sklearn.preprocessing`. Train the neural network again.

subjects/ai/keras/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`
+
+##### Run `python --version`
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, and `import keras` run without any error ?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Sequential
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output ends with `keras.engine.sequential.Sequential object at xxx`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Dense
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the fields `batch_input_shape`, `units` and `activation` match this output:
+
+```
+{'name': 'dense_7',
+'trainable': True,
+'batch_input_shape': (None, 5),
+'dtype': 'float32',
+'units': 8,
+'activation': 'sigmoid',
+'use_bias': True,
+'kernel_initializer': {'class_name': 'GlorotUniform',
+'config': {'seed': None}},
+'bias_initializer': {'class_name': 'Zeros', 'config': {}},
+'kernel_regularizer': None,
+'bias_regularizer': None,
+'activity_regularizer': None,
+'kernel_constraint': None,
+'bias_constraint': None}
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the fields `units` and `activation` match this output:
+
+```
+{'name': 'dense_8',
+'trainable': True,
+'dtype': 'float32',
+'units': 4,
+'activation': 'sigmoid',
+'use_bias': True,
+'kernel_initializer': {'class_name': 'GlorotUniform',
+'config': {'seed': None}},
+'bias_initializer': {'class_name': 'Zeros', 'config': {}},
+'kernel_regularizer': None,
+'bias_regularizer': None,
+'activity_regularizer': None,
+'kernel_constraint': None,
+'bias_constraint': None}
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the fields `units` and `activation` match this output:
+
+```
+{'name': 'dense_9',
+'trainable': True,
+'dtype': 'float32',
+'units': 1,
+'activation': 'sigmoid',
+'use_bias': True,
+'kernel_initializer': {'class_name': 'GlorotUniform',
+'config': {'seed': None}},
+'bias_initializer': {'class_name': 'Zeros', 'config': {}},
+'kernel_regularizer': None,
+'bias_regularizer': None,
+'activity_regularizer': None,
+'kernel_constraint': None,
+'bias_constraint': None}
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Architecture
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the code that creates the neural network is:
+
+```
+model = keras.Sequential()
+model.add(Dense(8, input_shape=(5,), activation= 'sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(4, activation= 'sigmoid'))
+model.add(Dense(1, activation= 'linear'))
+
+```
+
+The first two layers could use another activation function that sigmoid (eg: relu)
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Optimize
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of `model.get_config()['layers']` matches the fields `batch_input_shape`, `units` and `activation`.
+
+```
+[{'class_name': 'InputLayer',
+  'config': {'batch_input_shape': (None, 30),
+   'dtype': 'float32',
+   'sparse': False,
+   'ragged': False,
+   'name': 'dense_134_input'}},
+ {'class_name': 'Dense',
+  'config': {'name': 'dense_134',
+   'trainable': True,
+   'batch_input_shape': (None, 30),
+   'dtype': 'float32',
+   'units': 10,
+   'activation': 'sigmoid',
+   'use_bias': True,
+   'kernel_initializer': {'class_name': 'GlorotUniform',
+    'config': {'seed': None}},
+   'bias_initializer': {'class_name': 'Zeros', 'config': {}},
+   'kernel_regularizer': None,
+   'bias_regularizer': None,
+   'activity_regularizer': None,
+   'kernel_constraint': None,
+   'bias_constraint': None}},
+ {'class_name': 'Dense',
+  'config': {'name': 'dense_135',
+   'trainable': True,
+   'dtype': 'float32',
+   'units': 5,
+   'activation': 'sigmoid',
+   'use_bias': True,
+   'kernel_initializer': {'class_name': 'GlorotUniform',
+    'config': {'seed': None}},
+   'bias_initializer': {'class_name': 'Zeros', 'config': {}},
+   'kernel_regularizer': None,
+   'bias_regularizer': None,
+   'activity_regularizer': None,
+   'kernel_constraint': None,
+   'bias_constraint': None}},
+ {'class_name': 'Dense',
+  'config': {'name': 'dense_136',
+   'trainable': True,
+   'dtype': 'float32',
+   'units': 1,
+   'activation': 'sigmoid',
+   'use_bias': True,
+   'kernel_initializer': {'class_name': 'GlorotUniform',
+    'config': {'seed': None}},
+   'bias_initializer': {'class_name': 'Zeros', 'config': {}},
+   'kernel_regularizer': None,
+   'bias_regularizer': None,
+   'activity_regularizer': None,
+   'kernel_constraint': None,
+   'bias_constraint': None}}]
+```
+
+You should notice that the neural network is struggling to learn. By luck the initialization of the weights might have led to an accuracy close of 90%. But when I trained the neural network, with `batch_size=300` on the data here is the ouptput of the last epoch (50):
+
+`Epoch 50/50 2/2 [==============================] - 0s 1ms/step - loss: 0.6559 - accuracy: 0.6274`
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the the accuracy at epoch 50 is higher than 95%.

subjects/ai/linear-regression-with-scikit-learn/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+![Alt Text](w2_day01_linear_regression_video.gif)
+
+# Linear regression with Scikit Learn
+
+The goal of this day is to understand practical Linear regression and supervised learning.
+
+The word "regression" was introduced by Sir Francis Galton (a cousin of C. Darwin) when he
+studied the size of individuals within a progeny. He was trying to understand why
+large individuals in a population appeared to have smaller children, more
+close to the average population size; hence the introduction of the term "regression".
+
+Today we will learn a basic algorithm used in **supervised learning** : **The Linear Regression**. We will be using **Scikit-learn** which is a machine learning library. It is designed to interoperate with the Python libraries NumPy and Pandas.
+
+We will also learn progressively the Machine Learning methodology for supervised learning - today we will focus on evaluating a machine learning model by splitting the data set in a train set and a test set.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Scikit-learn estimator
+- Exercise 2: Linear regression in 1D
+- Exercise 3: Train test split
+- Exercise 4: Forecast diabetes progression
+- Exercise 5: Gradient Descent (**Optional**)
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Matplotlib
+- Scikit Learn
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of Scikit Learn I used to do the exercises: 0.22_. I suggest to use the most recent one. Scikit Learn 1.0 is finally available after ... 14 years.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+### To start with Scikit-learn
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/tutorial/basic/tutorial.html
+
+- https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/05.02-introducing-scikit-learn.html
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/linear_model.html
+
+### Machine learning methodology and algorithms
+
+- This course provides a broad introduction to machine learning, datamining, and statistical pattern recognition. Andrew Ng is a star in the Machine Learning community. I recommend to spend some time during the projects to focus on some algorithms. However, Python is not the language used for the course. https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning
+
+- https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/machine-learning/algorithm-cheat-sheet
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/tutorial/index.html
+
+### Linear Regression
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/laymans-introduction-to-linear-regression-8b334a3dab09
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/linear-regression-the-actually-complete-introduction-67152323fcf2
+
+### Train test split
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/train-test-split-for-evaluating-machine-learning-algorithms/
+
+- https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/crash-course/training-and-test-sets/video-lecture?hl=en
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, `matplotlib` and `scikit-learn`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Scikit-learn estimator
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to fit a Scikit-learn estimator and use it to predict.
+
+```console
+X, y = [[1],[2.1],[3]], [[1],[2],[3]]
+```
+
+1. Fit a LinearRegression from Scikit-learn with X the features and y the target and predict for `x_pred = [[4]]`
+
+2. Print the coefficients (`coefs_`) and the intercept (`intercept_`), the score (`score`) of the regression of X and y.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Linear regression in 1D
+
+The goal of this exercise is to understand how the linear regression works in one dimension. To do so, we will generate a data in one dimension. Using `make regression` from Scikit-learn, generate a data set with 100 observations:
+
+```python
+X, y, coef = make_regression(n_samples=100,
+                         n_features=1,
+                         n_informative=1,
+                         noise=10,
+                         coef=True,
+                         random_state=0,
+                         bias=100.0)
+```
+
+1. Plot the data using matplotlib. The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][q1]
+
+[q1]: ./w2_day1_ex2_q1.png "Scatter plot"
+
+2. Fit a LinearRegression from Scikit-learn on the generated data and give the equation of the fitted line. The expected output is: `y = coef * x + intercept`
+
+3. Add the fitted line to the plot. the plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][q3]
+
+[q3]: ./w2_day1_ex2_q3.png "Scatter plot + fitted line"
+
+4. Predict on X.
+
+5. Create a function that computes the Mean Squared Error (MSE) and compute the MSE on the data set. _The MSE is frequently used as well as other regression metrics that will be studied later this week._
+
+   ```
+   def compute_mse(y_true, y_pred):
+       #TODO
+       return mse
+   ```
+
+   Change the `noise` parameter of `make_regression` to 50
+
+6. Repeat question 2, 4 and compute the MSE on the new data.
+
+https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.metrics.mean_squared_error.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Train test split
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to split a data set. It is important to understand why we split the data in two sets. To put it in a nutshell: the Machine Learning model learns on the training data and evaluates on the data the model hasn't seen before: the testing data.
+
+This video gives a basic and nice explanation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vdMKioCXqQ
+
+This article explains the conditions to split the data and how to split it: https://machinelearningmastery.com/train-test-split-for-evaluating-machine-learning-algorithms/
+
+```python
+X = np.arange(1,21).reshape(10,-1)
+y = np.arange(1,11)
+```
+
+1. Split the data using `train_test_split` with `shuffle=False`. The test set represents 20% of the total size of the data set. Print X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test.
+
+https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.model_selection.train_test_split.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Forecast diabetes progression
+
+The goal of this exercise is to use Linear Regression to forecast the progression of diabetes. It will not always be precised, you should **ALWAYS** start doing an exploratory data analysis in order to have a good understanding of the data you model. As a reminder here an introduction to EDA:
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/exploratory-data-analysis-eda-a-practical-guide-and-template-for-structured-data-abfbf3ee3bd9
+
+The data set used is described in https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.datasets.load_diabetes.
+
+```python
+from sklearn.datasets import load_diabetes
+diabetes = load_diabetes()
+X, y = diabetes.data, diabetes.target
+```
+
+1. Using `train_test_split`, split the data set in a train set, and test set (20%). Use `random_state=43` for results reproducibility.
+
+2. Fit the Linear Regression on all the variables. Give the coefficients and the intercept of the Linear Regression. What is the the equation ?
+
+3. Predict on the test set. Predicting on the test set is like having new patients for who, as a physician, need to forecast the disease progression in one year given the 10 baseline variables.
+
+4. Compute the MSE on the train set and test set. Later this week we will learn about the R2 which will help us to evaluate the performance of this fitted Linear Regression. The MSE returns an arbitrary value depending on the range of error.
+
+**WARNING**: This will be explained later this week. But here, we are doing something "dangerous". As you may have read in the data documentation the data is scaled using the whole dataset whereas we should first scale the data on the training set and then use this scaling on the test set. This is a toy example, so let's ignore this detail for now.
+
+https://scikit-learn.org/stable/datasets/toy_dataset.html#diabetes-dataset
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Gradient Descent (Optional)
+
+The goal of this exercise is to understand how the Linear Regression algorithm finds the optimal coefficients.
+
+The goal is to fit a Linear Regression on a one dimensional features data **without using Scikit-learn**. Let's use the data set we generated for the exercise 2:
+
+```python
+X, y, coef = make_regression(n_samples=100,
+                         n_features=1,
+                         n_informative=1,
+                         noise=10,
+                         coef=True,
+                         random_state=0,
+                         bias=100.0)
+```
+
+_Warning: The shape of X is not the same as the shape of y. You may need (for some questions) to reshape X using: `X.reshape(1,-1)[0]`._
+
+1. Plot the data using matplotlib:
+
+![alt text][ex5q1]
+
+[ex5q1]: ./w2_day1_ex5_q1.png "Scatter plot "
+
+As a reminder, fitting a Linear Regression on this data means finding (a,b) that fits well the data points.
+
+- `y_pred = a*x +b`
+
+Mathematically, it means finding (a,b) that minimizes the MSE, which is the loss used in Linear Regression. If we consider 3 data points:
+
+- `Loss(a,b) = MSE(a,b) = 1/3 *((y_pred1 - y_true1)**2 + (y_pred2 - y_true2)**2) + (y_pred3 - y_true3)**2)`
+
+and we know:
+
+y_pred1 = a*x1 + b\
+y_pred2 = a*x2 + b\
+y_pred3 = a\*x3 + b
+
+### Greedy approach
+
+2. Create a function `compute_mse`. Compute mse for `a = 1` and `b = 2`.
+   **Warning**: `X.shape` is `(100, 1)` and `y.shape` is `(100, )`. Make sure that `y_preds` and `y` have the same shape before to compute `y_preds-y`.
+
+```python
+def compute_mse(coefs, X, y):
+    '''
+    coefs is a list that contains a and b: [a,b]
+    X is the features set
+    y is the target
+
+    Returns a float which is the MSE
+    '''
+
+    #TODO
+
+    y_preds =
+    mse =
+
+    return mse
+```
+
+3. Create a grid of **640000** points that combines a and b with. Check that the grid contains 640000 points.
+
+- a between -200 and 200, step= 0.5
+- b between -200 and 200, step= 0.5
+
+This is how to compute the grid with the combination of a and b:
+
+```python
+aa, bb = np.mgrid[-200:200:0.5, -200:200:0.5]
+grid = np.c_[aa.ravel(), bb.ravel()]
+```
+
+4. Compute the MSE for all points in the grid. If possible, parallelize the computations. It may be needed to use `functools.partial` to parallelize a function with many parameters on a list. Put the result in a variable named `losses`.
+
+5. Use this chunk of code to plot the MSE in 2D:
+
+```python
+aa, bb = np.mgrid[-200:200:.5, -200:200:.5]
+grid = np.c_[aa.ravel(), bb.ravel()]
+losses_reshaped = np.array(losses).reshape(aa.shape)
+
+f, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(8, 6))
+contour = ax.contourf(aa,
+                    bb,
+                    losses_reshaped,
+                    100,
+                    cmap="RdBu",
+                    vmin=0,
+                    vmax=160000)
+ax_c = f.colorbar(contour)
+ax_c.set_label("MSE")
+
+ax.set(aspect="equal",
+    xlim=(-200, 200),
+    ylim=(-200, 200),
+    xlabel="$a$",
+    ylabel="$b$")
+```
+
+The expected output is:
+
+![alt text][ex5q5]
+
+[ex5q5]: ./w2_day1_ex5_q5.png "MSE "
+
+6. From the `losses` list, find the optimal value of a and b and plot the line in the scatter point of question 1.
+
+In this example we computed 160 000 times the MSE. It is frequent to deal with 50 features, which requires 51 parameters to fit the Linear Regression. If we try this approach with 50 features we would need to compute **5.07e+132** MSE. Even if we reduce the scope and try only 5 values per coefficients we would have to compute the MSE **4.4409e+35** times. This approach is not scalable and that is why is not used to find optimal coefficients for Linear Regression.
+
+### Gradient Descent
+
+In a nutshel, Gradient descent is an optimization algorithm used to minimize some function by iteratively moving in the direction of steepest descent as defined by the negative of the gradient. In machine learning, we use gradient descent to update the parameters (a and b) of our model. Parameters refer to the coefficients used in Linear Regression. Before to start implementing the questions, take the time to read the article. https://jairiidriss.medium.com/gradient-descent-algorithm-from-scratch-using-python-2b36c1548917. It explains the gradient descent and how to implement it. The "tricky" part is the computation of the derivative of the mse. You can admit the formulas of the derivatives to implement the gradient descent (`d_theta_0` and `d_theta_1` in the article).
+
+7. Implement the gradient descent to find optimal a and b with `learning rate = 0.1` and `nbr_iterations=100`.
+
+8. Save the a and b through the iterations in a two dimensional numpy array. Add them to the plot of the previous part and observe a and b that converge towards the minimum. The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][ex5q8]
+
+[ex5q8]: ./w2_day1_ex5_q8.png "MSE + Gradient descent"
+
+9. Use Linear Regression from Scikit-learn. Compare the results.

subjects/ai/linear-regression-with-scikit-learn/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,223 @@
+#### Linear regression with Scikit Learn
+
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`
+
+##### Run `python --version`
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+###### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, `import matplotlib` and `import sklearn` run without any error ?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Scikit-learn estimator
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+```python
+    array([[3.96013289]])
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is:
+
+```output
+    Coefficients:  [[0.99667774]]
+    Intercept:  [-0.02657807]
+    Score:  0.9966777408637874
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Linear regression in 1D
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the plot looks like:
+
+![alt text][q1]
+
+[q1]: ../w2_day1_ex2_q1.png "Scatter plot"
+
+###### The question 2 is validated if the equation of the fitted line is: `y = 42.619430291366946 * x + 99.18581817296929`
+
+###### The question 3 is validated if the plot looks like:
+
+![alt text][q3]
+
+[q3]: ../w2_day1_ex2_q3.png "Scatter plot + fitted line"
+
+###### The question 4 is validated if the outputted prediction for the first 10 values are:
+
+```python
+array([ 83.86186727, 140.80961751, 116.3333897 ,  64.52998689,
+        61.34889539, 118.10301628,  57.5347917 , 117.44107847,
+       108.06237908,  85.90762675])
+```
+
+###### The question 5 is validated if the MSE returned is `114.17148616819485`
+
+###### The question 6 is validated if the MSE returned is `2854.2871542048706`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Train test split
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test match this output:
+
+```console
+X_train:
+ [[ 1  2]
+ [ 3  4]
+ [ 5  6]
+ [ 7  8]
+ [ 9 10]
+ [11 12]
+ [13 14]
+ [15 16]]
+
+
+y_train:
+ [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8]
+
+
+X_test:
+ [[17 18]
+ [19 20]]
+
+
+y_test:
+ [ 9 10]
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Forecast diabetes progression
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of `y_train.values[:10]` and `y_test.values[:10]`are:
+
+```console
+    y_train.values[:10]:
+    [[202.]
+    [ 55.]
+    [202.]
+    [ 42.]
+    [214.]
+    [173.]
+    [118.]
+    [ 90.]
+    [129.]
+    [151.]]
+
+    y_test.values[:10]:
+    [[ 71.]
+    [ 72.]
+    [235.]
+    [277.]
+    [109.]
+    [ 61.]
+    [109.]
+    [ 78.]
+    [ 66.]
+    [192.]]
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the coefficients and the intercept are:
+
+```console
+    [('age', -60.40163046086952),
+    ('sex', -226.08740652083418),
+    ('bmi', 529.383623302316),
+    ('bp', 259.96307686274605),
+    ('s1', -859.121931974365),
+    ('s2', 504.70960058378813),
+    ('s3', 157.42034928335502),
+    ('s4', 226.29533600601638),
+    ('s5', 840.7938070846119),
+    ('s6', 34.712225788519554),
+    ('intercept', 152.05314895029233)]
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the output of `predictions_on_test[:10]` is:
+
+```console
+    array([[111.74351759],
+        [ 98.41335251],
+        [168.36373195],
+        [255.05882934],
+        [168.43764643],
+        [117.60982186],
+        [198.86966323],
+        [126.28961941],
+        [117.73121787],
+        [224.83346984]])
+```
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the mse on the **train set** is `2888.326888` and the mse on the **test set** is `2858.255153`.
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Gradient Descent (Optional)
+
+##### The exercise is validated if all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+###### +The question 1 is validated if the outputted plot looks like:
+
+![alt text][ex5q1]
+
+[ex5q1]: ../w2_day1_ex5_q1.png "Scatter plot "
+
+###### +The question 2 is validated if the output is: `11808.867339751561`
+
+###### +The question 3 is validated if `grid.shape` is `(640000,2)`.
+
+###### +The question 4 is validated if the 10 first values of losses are:
+
+```console
+array([158315.41493175, 158001.96852692, 157689.02212209, 157376.57571726,
+    157064.62931244, 156753.18290761, 156442.23650278, 156131.79009795,
+    155821.84369312, 155512.39728829])
+```
+
+###### +The question 5 is validated if the outputted plot looks like
+
+![alt text][ex5q5]
+
+[ex5q5]: ../w2_day1_ex5_q5.png "MSE"
+
+###### +The question 6 is validated if the point returned is:
+`array([42.5, 99. ])`. It means that `a= 42.5` and `b=99`.
+
+###### +The question 7 is validated if the coefficients returned are:
+
+```console
+Coefficients (a): 42.61943031121358
+Intercept (b): 99.18581814447936
+```
+
+###### +The question 8 is validated if the outputted plot is:
+
+![alt text][ex5q8]
+
+[ex5q8]: ../w2_day1_ex5_q8.png "MSE + Gradient descent"
+
+###### +The question 9 is validated if the coefficients and intercept returned are:
+
+```console
+Coefficients:  [42.61943029]
+Intercept:  99.18581817296929
+```

subjects/ai/machine-learning-pipeline/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,366 @@
+# Machine Learning Pipeline
+
+Today we will focus on the data preprocessing and discover the Pipeline object from scikit learn.
+
+1. Manage categorical variables with Integer encoding and One Hot Encoding
+2. Impute the missing values
+3. Reduce the dimension of the data
+4. Scale the data
+
+- The **step 1** is always necessary. Models use numbers, for instance string data can't be processed raw.
+- The **steps 2** is always necessary. Machine learning models use numbers, missing values do not have mathematical representations, that is why the missing values have to be imputed.
+- The **step 3** is required when the dimension of the data set is high. The dimension reduction algorithms reduce the dimensionality of the data either by selecting the variables that contain most of the information (SelectKBest) or by transforming the data. Depending on the signal in the data and the data set size the dimension reduction is not always required. This step is not covered because of its complexity. The understanding of the theory behind is important. However, I suggest to give it a try during the projects.
+
+- The **step 4** is required when using some type of Machine Learning algorithms. The Machine Learning algorithms that require the feature scaling are mostly KNN (K-Nearest Neighbors), Neural Networks, Linear Regression, and Logistic Regression. The reason why some algorithms work better with feature scaling is that the minimization of the loss function may be more difficult if each feature's range is completely different.
+
+These steps are sequential. The output of step 1 is used as input for step 2 and so on; and, the output of step 4 is used as input for the Machine Learning model.
+Scikitlearn proposes an object: Pipeline.
+
+As we know, the model evaluation methodology requires to split the data set in a train set and test set. **The preprocessing is learned/fitted on the training set and applied on the test set**.
+
+This object takes as input the preprocessing transforms and a Machine Learning model. Then this object can be called the same way a Machine Learning model is called. This is pretty practical because we do not need anymore to carry many objects.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Imputer 1
+- Exercise 2: Scaler
+- Exercise 3: One hot Encoder
+- Exercise 4: Ordinal Encoder
+- Exercise 5: Categorical variables
+- Exercise 6: Pipeline
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Matplotlib
+- Scikit Learn
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of Scikit Learn I used to do the exercises: 0.22_. I suggest to use the most recent one. Scikit Learn 1.0 is finally available after ... 14 years.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+### Step 3
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/dimensionality-reduction-for-machine-learning-80a46c2ebb7e
+
+### Step 4
+
+- https://medium.com/@societyofai/simplest-way-for-feature-scaling-in-gradient-descent-ae0aaa383039#:~:text=Feature%20scaling%20is%20an%20idea,of%20convergence%20of%20gradient%20descent.
+
+### Pipeline
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.pipeline.Pipeline.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, `matplotlib` and `scikit-learn`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Imputer 1
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn how to use an Imputer to fill missing values on basic example.
+
+```python
+train_data = [[7, 6, 5],
+              [4, np.nan, 5],
+              [1, 20, 8]]
+```
+
+1. Fit the `SimpleImputer` on the data. Print the `statistics_`. Check that the statistics match `np.nanmean(train_data, axis=0)`.
+
+2. Fill the missing values in `train_data` using the fitted imputer and `transform`.
+
+3. Fill the missing values in `test_data` using the fitted imputer and `transform`.
+
+```python
+test_data = [[np.nan, 1, 2],
+             [7, np.nan, 9],
+             [np.nan, 2, 4]]
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Scaler
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to scale a data set. There are various scaling techniques, we will focus on `StandardScaler` from scikit learn.
+
+We will use a tiny data set for this exercise that we will generate by ourselves:
+
+```python
+X_train = np.array([[ 1., -1.,  2.],
+                     [ 2.,  0.,  0.],
+                     [ 0.,  1., -1.]])
+```
+
+1. Fit the `StandardScaler` on the data and scale X_train using `fit_transform`. Compute the `mean` and `std` on `axis 0`.
+
+2. Scale the test set using the `StandardScaler` fitted on the train set.
+
+```python
+X_test = np.array([[ 2., -1.,  1.],
+                     [ 3.,  3.,  -1.],
+                     [ 1.,  1., 1.]])
+```
+
+**WARNING:
+If the data is split in train and test set, it is extremely important to apply the same scaling the test data. As the model is trained on scaled data, if it takes as input unscaled data, it returns incorrect values.**
+
+Resources:
+
+- https://medium.com/technofunnel/what-when-why-feature-scaling-for-machine-learning-standard-minmax-scaler-49e64c510422
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/preprocessing.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: One hot Encoder
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn how to deal with Categorical variables using the OneHot Encoder.
+
+```python
+X_train = [['Python'], ['Java'], ['Java'], ['C++']]
+```
+
+1. Using `OneHotEncoder` with `handle_unknown='ignore'`, fit the One Hot Encoder and transform X_train. The expected output is:
+
+   |     | ('C++',) | ('Java',) | ('Python',) |
+   | --: | -------: | --------: | ----------: |
+   |   0 |        0 |         0 |           1 |
+   |   1 |        0 |         1 |           0 |
+   |   2 |        0 |         1 |           0 |
+   |   3 |        1 |         0 |           0 |
+
+   To get this output create a DataFrame from the transformed X*train and the attribute `categories*`.
+
+2. Transform X_test using the fitted One Hot Encoder on the train set.
+
+```python
+X_test = [['Python'], ['Java'], ['C'], ['C++']]
+```
+
+The expected output is:
+
+    |    |   ('C++',) |   ('Java',) |   ('Python',) |
+    |---:|-----------:|------------:|--------------:|
+    |  0 |          0 |           0 |             1 |
+    |  1 |          0 |           1 |             0 |
+    |  2 |          0 |           0 |             0 |
+    |  3 |          1 |           0 |             0 |
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.preprocessing.OneHotEncoder.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Ordinal Encoder
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn how to deal with Categorical variables using the Ordinal Encoder.
+
+In that case, we want the model to consider that: **good > neutral > bad**
+
+```python
+X_train = [['good'], ['bad'], ['neutral']]
+```
+
+1. Fit the `OrdinalEncoder` by specifying the categories in the following order: `categories=[['bad', 'neutral', 'good']]`. Transform the train set. Print the `categories_`
+
+2. Transform the X_test using the fitted Ordinal Encoder on train set.
+
+```python
+X_test = [['good'], ['good'], ['bad']]
+```
+
+_Note: In the version 0.22 of Scikit-learn, the Ordinal Encoder doesn't handle new values in the test set. But it will be possible in the version 0.24 !_
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Categorical variables
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn how to deal with Categorical variables with Ordinal Encoder, Label Encoder and One Hot Encoder. For this exercice I strongly suggest to use a recent version of `sklearn >= 0.24.1` to avoid issues with the Ordinal Encoder.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Load the breast-cancer.csv file
+- Drop `Class` column
+- Drop NaN values
+- Split the data in a train set and test set (test set size = 20% of the total size) with `random_state=43`.
+
+1. Count the number of unique values per feature in the train set.
+
+2. Identify the variables ordinal variables, nominal variables and the target. Compute a One Hot Encoder transformation on the test set for all categorical features (no ordinal) in the following order `['node-caps' , 'breast', 'breast-quad', 'irradiat']`. Here are the assumptions made on the variables:
+
+```console
+age: Ordinal
+['90-99' > '80-89' > '70-79' > '60-69' > '50-59' > '40-49' > '30-39' > '20-29' > '10-19']
+
+menopause: Ordinal
+['ge40'> 'premeno' >'lt40']
+
+tumor-size: Ordinal
+['55-59' > '50-54' > '45-49' > '40-44' > '35-39' > '30-34' > '25-29' > '20-24' > '15-19' > '10-14' > '5-9' > '0-4']
+
+inv-nodes: Ordinal
+['36-39' > '33-35' > '30-32' > '27-29' > '24-26' > '21-23' > '18-20' > '15-17' > '12-14' > '9-11' > '6-8' > '3-5' > '0-2']
+
+node-caps: One Hot
+['yes' 'no']
+
+deg-malig: Ordinal
+[3 > 2 > 1]
+
+breast: One Hot
+['left' 'right']
+
+breast-quad: One Hot
+['right_low' 'left_low' 'left_up' 'central' 'right_up']
+
+
+irradiat: One Hot
+['recurrence-events' 'no-recurrence-events']
+```
+
+- Fit on the train set
+
+- Transform the test set
+
+Example of expected output:
+
+```console
+# One Hot encoder on: ['node-caps' , 'breast', 'breast-quad', 'irradiat']
+
+input: ohe.transform(X_test[ohe_cols])[:10]
+output:
+array([[1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [0., 1., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1.]])
+
+input: ohe.get_feature_names(ohe_cols)
+output:
+array(['node-caps_no', 'node-caps_yes', 'breast_left', 'breast_right',
+       'breast-quad_central', 'breast-quad_left_low',
+       'breast-quad_left_up', 'breast-quad_right_low',
+       'breast-quad_right_up', 'irradiat_no', 'irradiat_yes'],
+      dtype=object)
+
+```
+
+3. Create one Ordinal encoder for all Ordinal features in the following order `["menopause", "age", "tumor-size","inv-nodes", "deg-malig"]` on the test set. The documentation of Scikit-learn is not clear on how to perform this on many columns at the same time. Here's a **hint**:
+
+If the ordinal data set is (subset of two columns but I keep all rows for this example):
+
+    |    | menopause     |   deg-malig |
+    |---:|:--------------|------------:|
+    |  0 | premeno       |           3 |
+    |  1 | ge40          |           1 |
+    |  2 | ge40          |           2 |
+    |  3 | premeno       |           3 |
+    |  4 | premeno       |           2 |
+
+The first step is to create a dictionnary or a list - the most recent version of sklearn take as input lists:
+
+```console
+dict_ = {0: ['lt40', 'premeno' , 'ge40'], 1:[1,2,3]}
+```
+
+Then to instantiate an `OrdinalEncoder`:
+
+```console
+oe = OrdinalEncoder(dict_)
+```
+
+Now that you have enough information:
+
+- Fit on the train set
+- Transform the test set
+
+4. Use a `make_column_transformer` to combine the two Encoders.
+
+- Fit on the train set
+- Transform the test set
+
+_Hint: Check the first ressource_
+
+**Note: The version 0.22 of Scikit-learn can't handle `get_feature_names` on `OrdinalEncoder`. If the column transformer contains an `OrdinalEncoder`, the method returns this error**:
+
+```console
+AttributeError: Transformer ordinalencoder (type OrdinalEncoder) does not provide get_feature_names.
+```
+
+**It means that if you want to use the Ordinal Encoder, you will have to create a variable that contains the columns name in the right order. This step is not required in that exercise**
+
+Ressources:
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/guide-to-encoding-categorical-features-using-scikit-learn-for-machine-learning-5048997a5c79
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/one-hot-encoding-for-categorical-data/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Pipeline
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use the Scikit-learn object: Pipeline. The data set: used for this exercise is the `iris` data set.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Run the code below.
+
+  ```console
+  iris = load_iris()
+  X, y = iris['data'], iris['target']
+
+  #add missing values
+  X[[1,20,50,100,135], 0] = np.nan
+  X[[2,5,88,135], 1] = np.nan
+  X[[4,15], 2] = np.nan
+  X[[40,135], 3] = np.nan
+  ```
+
+- Split the data set in a train set and test set (33%), fit the Pipeline on the train set and predict on the test set. Use `random_state=43`.
+
+The pipeline you will implement has to contain 3 steps:
+
+- Imputer (median)
+- Standard Scaler
+- LogisticRegression
+
+1. Train the pipeline on the train set and predict on the test set. Give the score of the model on the test set.
+
+---
+---

subjects/ai/machine-learning-pipeline/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, `import matplotlib` and `import sklearn` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Imputer 1
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the `imp_mean.statistics_` returns:
+
+```console
+    array([ 4., 13.,  6.])
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the filled train set is:
+
+```console
+    array([[ 7.,  6.,  5.],
+        [ 4., 13.,  5.],
+        [ 1., 20.,  8.]])
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the filled test set is:
+
+```console
+    array([[ 4.,  1.,  2.],
+        [ 7., 13.,  9.],
+        [ 4.,  2.,  4.]])
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Scaler
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all. questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the scaled train set is as below. And by definition, the mean on the axis 0 should be `array([0., 0., 0.])` and the standard deviation on the axis 0 should be `array([1., 1., 1.])`.
+
+```console
+array([[ 0.        , -1.22474487,  1.33630621],
+       [ 1.22474487,  0.        , -0.26726124],
+       [-1.22474487,  1.22474487, -1.06904497]])
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the scaled test set is:
+
+```console
+array([[ 1.22474487, -1.22474487,  0.53452248],
+       [ 2.44948974,  3.67423461, -1.06904497],
+       [ 0.        ,  1.22474487,  0.53452248]])
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: One hot Encoder
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+    |    |   ('C++',) |   ('Java',) |   ('Python',) |
+    |---:|-----------:|------------:|--------------:|
+    |  0 |          0 |           0 |             1 |
+    |  1 |          0 |           1 |             0 |
+    |  2 |          0 |           1 |             0 |
+    |  3 |          1 |           0 |             0 |
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is:
+
+    |    |   ('C++',) |   ('Java',) |   ('Python',) |
+    |---:|-----------:|------------:|--------------:|
+    |  0 |          0 |           0 |             1 |
+    |  1 |          0 |           1 |             0 |
+    |  2 |          0 |           0 |             0 |
+    |  3 |          1 |           0 |             0 |
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Ordinal Encoder
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of the Ordinal Encoder on the train set is:
+
+```console
+array([[2.],
+       [0.],
+       [1.]])
+```
+
+Check that `enc.categories_` returns`[array(['bad', 'neutral', 'good'], dtype=object)]`.
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output of the Ordinal Encoder on the test set is:
+
+```console
+array([[2.],
+       [2.],
+       [0.]])
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Categorical variables
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the number of unique values per feature outputted are:
+
+```console
+age             6
+menopause       3
+tumor-size     11
+inv-nodes       6
+node-caps       2
+deg-malig       3
+breast          2
+breast-quad     5
+irradiat        2
+dtype: int64
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the transformed test set by the `OneHotEncoder` fitted on the train set is as below. Make sure the transformer takes as input a dataframe with the columns in the order defined `['node-caps' , 'breast', 'breast-quad', 'irradiat']` :
+
+```console
+#First 10 rows:
+
+array([[1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0.],
+       [0., 1., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1.]])
+
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the transformed test set by the `OrdinalEncoder` fitted on the train set is as below with the columns ordered as `["menopause", "age", "tumor-size","inv-nodes", "deg-malig"]`:
+
+```console
+#First 10 rows:
+
+array([[1., 2., 5., 0., 1.],
+   [1., 3., 4., 0., 1.],
+   [1., 2., 4., 0., 1.],
+   [1., 3., 2., 0., 1.],
+   [1., 4., 3., 0., 1.],
+   [1., 4., 5., 0., 0.],
+   [2., 5., 4., 0., 1.],
+   [2., 5., 8., 0., 1.],
+   [0., 2., 3., 0., 2.],
+   [1., 3., 6., 4., 2.]])
+
+```
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the column transformer transformed that is fitted on the X_train, transformed the X_test as:
+
+```console
+# First 2 rows:
+
+array([[1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 2., 5., 0., 1.],
+       [1., 0., 1., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 1., 3., 4., 0., 1.]])
+```
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Pipeline
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the prediction on the test set are:
+
+```console
+array([0, 0, 2, 1, 2, 0, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 2, 2, 0, 0,
+       0, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2,
+       0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
+```
+
+and the score on the test set is **98%**.
+
+**Note: Keep in mind that having a 98% accuracy is not common when working with real life data. Every time you have a score > 97% check that there's no leakage in the data. On financial data set, the ratio signal to noise is low. Trying to forecast stock prices is a difficult problem. Having an accuracy higher than 70% should be interpreted as a warning to check data leakage!**

subjects/ai/machine-learning-pipeline/data/breast-cancer.csv

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subjects/ai/machine-learning-pipeline/data/breast_cancer_readme.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+Citation Request:
+   This breast cancer domain was obtained from the University Medical Centre,
+   Institute of Oncology, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia.  Thanks go to M. Zwitter and
+   M. Soklic for providing the data.  Please include this citation if you plan
+   to use this database.
+
+1. Title: Breast cancer data (Michalski has used this)
+
+2. Sources:
+   -- Matjaz Zwitter & Milan Soklic (physicians)
+      Institute of Oncology
+      University Medical Center
+      Ljubljana, Yugoslavia
+   -- Donors: Ming Tan and Jeff Schlimmer (Jeffrey.Schlimmer@a.gp.cs.cmu.edu)
+   -- Date: 11 July 1988
+
+3. Past Usage: (Several: here are some)
+     -- Michalski,R.S., Mozetic,I., Hong,J., & Lavrac,N. (1986). The
+        Multi-Purpose Incremental Learning System AQ15 and its Testing
+        Application to Three Medical Domains.  In Proceedings of the
+        Fifth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1041-1045,
+        Philadelphia, PA: Morgan Kaufmann.
+        -- accuracy range: 66%-72%
+     -- Clark,P. & Niblett,T. (1987). Induction in Noisy Domains.  In
+        Progress in Machine Learning (from the Proceedings of the 2nd
+        European Working Session on Learning), 11-30, Bled,
+        Yugoslavia: Sigma Press.
+        -- 8 test results given: 65%-72% accuracy range
+     -- Tan, M., & Eshelman, L. (1988). Using weighted networks to
+        represent classification knowledge in noisy domains.  Proceedings
+        of the Fifth International Conference on Machine Learning, 121-134,
+        Ann Arbor, MI.
+        -- 4 systems tested: accuracy range was 68%-73.5%
+    -- Cestnik,G., Konenenko,I, & Bratko,I. (1987). Assistant-86: A
+       Knowledge-Elicitation Tool for Sophisticated Users.  In I.Bratko
+       & N.Lavrac (Eds.) Progress in Machine Learning, 31-45, Sigma Press.
+       -- Assistant-86: 78% accuracy
+
+4. Relevant Information:
+     This is one of three domains provided by the Oncology Institute
+     that has repeatedly appeared in the machine learning literature.
+     (See also lymphography and primary-tumor.)
+
+     This data set includes 201 instances of one class and 85 instances of
+     another class.  The instances are described by 9 attributes, some of
+     which are linear and some are nominal.
+
+5. Number of Instances: 286
+
+6. Number of Attributes: 9 + the class attribute
+
+7. Attribute Information:
+   1. Class: no-recurrence-events, recurrence-events
+   2. age: 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69, 70-79, 80-89, 90-99.
+   3. menopause: lt40, ge40, premeno.
+   4. tumor-size: 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44,
+                  45-49, 50-54, 55-59.
+   5. inv-nodes: 0-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9-11, 12-14, 15-17, 18-20, 21-23, 24-26,
+                 27-29, 30-32, 33-35, 36-39.
+   6. node-caps: yes, no.
+   7. deg-malig: 1, 2, 3.
+   8. breast: left, right.
+   9. breast-quad: left-up, left-low, right-up,	right-low, central.
+  10. irradiat:	yes, no.
+
+8. Missing Attribute Values: (denoted by "?")
+   Attribute #:  Number of instances with missing values:
+   6.             8
+   9.             1.
+
+9. Class Distribution:
+    1. no-recurrence-events: 201 instances
+    2. recurrence-events: 85 instances

subjects/ai/model-selection-methodology/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+# Model selection methodology
+
+If you finished yesterday's exercises you should be able to train several Machine Learning algorithms and to choose one returned by GridSearchCV.
+GridSearchCV returns the model that gives the best score on the test set. Yesterday, as I told you, I changed the **cv** parameter to compute the GridSearch with a train set and a test set.
+
+It means that the selected model is based on one single measure. What if, by luck, we predict correctly on that section ? What if the best model is bad ? What if I could have selected a better model ?
+
+We will answer these questions today ! The topics we will cover are the one of the most important in Machine Learning.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: K-Fold
+- Exercise 2: Cross validation (k-fold)
+- Exercise 3: GridsearchCV
+- Exercise 4: Validation curve and Learning curve
+
+### Virtual Environment
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+- Scikit-learn
+- Matplotlib
+
+*Version of Pandas I used to do the exercises: 1.0.1*.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+**Must read before to start the exercises**
+
+### Biais-Variance trade off, aka Underfitting/Overfitting:
+  - https://machinelearningmastery.com/gentle-introduction-to-the-bias-variance-trade-off-in-machine-learning/
+
+  - https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/05.03-hyperparameters-and-model-validation.html
+
+### Cross-validation
+  - https://algotrading101.com/learn/train-test-split/
+
+---
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, `matplotlib` and `scikit-learn`.
+
+---
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: K-Fold
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use `KFold` to split the data set in a k-fold cross validation. Most of the time you won't use this function to split your data because this function is used by others as `cross_val_score` or `cross_validate` or `GridSearchCV` ... . But, this allows to understand the splitting and to create a custom one if needed.
+
+```python
+X = np.array(np.arange(1,21).reshape(10,-1))
+y = np.array(np.arange(1,11))
+```
+
+1. Using `KFold`, perform a 5-fold cross validation. For each fold, print the train index and test index. The expected output is:
+
+    ```console
+    Fold:  1
+    TRAIN: [2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9] TEST: [0 1]
+
+    Fold:  2
+    TRAIN: [0 1 4 5 6 7 8 9] TEST: [2 3]
+
+    Fold:  3
+    TRAIN: [0 1 2 3 6 7 8 9] TEST: [4 5]
+
+    Fold:  4
+    TRAIN: [0 1 2 3 4 5 8 9] TEST: [6 7]
+
+    Fold:  5
+    TRAIN: [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7] TEST: [8 9]
+    ```
+
+---
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Cross validation (k-fold)
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn how to use cross validation. After reading the articles you should be able to explain why we need to cross-validate the models. We will firstly focus on Linear Regression to reduce the computation time. We will be using `cross_validate` to run the cross validation. Note that `cross_val_score` is similar but the `cross_validate` calculates one or more scores and timings for each CV split.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Import California Housing data set and split it in a train set and a test set (10%). Fit a linear regression on the data set. *The goal is to focus on the cross validation, that is why the code to fit the Linear Regression is given.*
+
+```python
+# imports
+from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
+from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
+from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
+from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
+from sklearn.impute import SimpleImputer
+from sklearn.pipeline import Pipeline
+
+# data
+housing = fetch_california_housing()
+X, y = housing['data'], housing['target']
+# split data train test
+X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X,
+                                                    y,
+                                                    test_size=0.1,
+                                                    shuffle=True,
+                                                    random_state=43)
+# pipeline
+pipeline = [('imputer', SimpleImputer(strategy='median')),
+            ('scaler', StandardScaler()),
+            ('lr', LinearRegression())]
+pipe = Pipeline(pipeline)
+```
+
+1. Cross validate the Pipeline using `cross_validate` with 10 folds. Print the scores on each validation sets, the mean score on the validation sets and the standard deviation on the validation sets. The expected output is:
+
+```console
+Scores on validation sets:
+ [0.62433594 0.61648956 0.62486602 0.59891024 0.59284295 0.61307055
+ 0.54630341 0.60742976 0.60014575 0.59574508]
+
+Mean of scores on validation sets:
+ 0.60201392526743
+
+Standard deviation of scores on validation sets:
+ 0.0214983822773466
+
+ ```
+
+**Note: It may be confusing that the key of the dictionary that returns the results on the validation sets is `test_score`. Sometimes, the validation sets are called test sets. In that case, we run the cross validation on X_train. It means that the scores are computed on sets in the initial train set. The X_test is not used for the cross-validation.**
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.model_selection.cross_validate.html
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/how-to-configure-k-fold-cross-validation/
+
+---
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: GridsearchCV
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use GridSearchCV to run a grid search, predict on the test set and score on the test set.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Import California Housing data set and split it in a train set and a test set (10%). Fit a linear regression on the data set. *The goal is to focus on the gridsearch, that is why the code to fit the Linear Regression is given.*
+
+```python
+# imports
+from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
+from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
+from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
+from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
+from sklearn.impute import SimpleImputer
+from sklearn.pipeline import Pipeline
+
+# data
+housing = fetch_california_housing()
+X, y = housing['data'], housing['target']
+# split data train test
+X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X,
+                                                    y,
+                                                    test_size=0.1,
+                                                    shuffle=True,
+                                                    random_state=43)
+# pipeline
+pipeline = [('imputer', SimpleImputer(strategy='median')),
+            ('scaler', StandardScaler()),
+            ('lr', LinearRegression())]
+pipe = Pipeline(pipeline)
+```
+
+1. Run `GridSearchCV` on all CPUs with 5 folds, MSE as score, Random Forest as model with:
+
+- max_depth between 1 and 20 (at least 3 values)
+- n_estimators between 1 and 100 (at least 3 values)
+
+This may take few minutes to run.
+
+*Hint*: The name of the metric to put in the parameter `scoring` is `neg_mean_squared_error`. The smaller the MSE is, the better the model is. At the contrary, The greater the R2 is the better the model is. `GridSearchCV` chooses the best model by selecting the one that maximized the score on the validation sets. And, in mathematic, maximizing a function or minimizing its opposite is equivalent. More details:
+
+- https://stackoverflow.com/questions/21443865/scikit-learn-cross-validation-negative-values-with-mean-squared-error
+
+2. Extract the best fitted estimator, print its params, print its score on the validation set and print `cv_results_`.
+
+3. Compute the score the test set.
+
+**WARNING: If the score used in classification is the AUC, there is one rare case where the AUC may return an error or a warning: The fold contains only one class. In that case it can't be computed, by definition.**
+
+---
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Validation curve and Learning curve
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to analyse the model's performance with two tools:
+
+- Validation curve
+- Learning curve
+
+For this exercise we will use a dataset of 100k data points to give you an idea of the computation time you can expect during projects.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Using make_classification from sklearn, generate a binary data set with 100k data points and with 30 features.
+
+```python
+X, y = make_classification(n_samples=100000,
+                        n_features= 30,
+                        n_informative=10,
+                        flip_y=0.2 )
+```
+
+1. Plot the validation curve, using all CPUs, with 5 folds. The goal is to focus again on max_depth between 1 and 20.
+You may need to increase the window (example: between 1 and 50 ) if you notice that other values of max_depth could have returned better results. This may take few minutes.
+
+I do not expect that you implement all the plot from scratch, you'd better leverage the code here:
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/auto_examples/model_selection/plot_validation_curve
+
+The plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][logo_ex5q1]
+
+[logo_ex5q1]: ./w2_day5_ex5_q1.png "Validation curve "
+
+The interpretation is that from max_depth=10, the train score keeps increasing but the test score (or validation score) reaches a plateau. It means that choosing max_depth = 20 may lead to have an over fitted model.
+
+Note: Given the time computation is is not possible to plot the validation curve for all parameters. It is useful to plot it for parameters that control the over fitting the most.
+
+More details:
+
+- https://chrisalbon.com/machine_learning/model_evaluation/plot_the_validation_curve/
+
+2. Let us assume the gridsearch returned `clf = RandomForestClassifier(max_depth=12)`. Let's check if the models under fits, over fit or fits correctly. Plot the learning curve. These two resources will help you a lot to understand how to analyse the learning curves and how to plot them:
+
+- https://machinelearningmastery.com/learning-curves-for-diagnosing-machine-learning-model-performance/
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/auto_examples/model_selection/plot_learning_curve.html#sphx-glr-auto-examples-model-selection-plot-learning-curve-py
+
+- **Re-use the function in the second resource**, change the cross validation to a classic 10-folds, run the learning curve data computation on all CPUs and plot the three plots as shown below.
+
+![alt text][logo_ex5q2]
+
+[logo_ex5q2]: ./w2_day5_ex5_q2.png "Learning curve "
+
+- **Note Plot Learning Curves**: The learning curves is detailed in the first resource.
+
+- **Note Plot Scalability of the model**: This plot shows the relationship between the time to train the model and the number of rows in the data. In that case the relationship is linear.
+
+- **Note Performance of the model**: This plot shows wether it worths increasing the training time by adding data to increase the score. It would worth to add data to increase the score if the curve hasn't reach a plateau yet. In that case, increasing the training time by 10 units increases the score by less than 0.001.

subjects/ai/model-selection-methodology/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, `import matplotlib` and `import sklearn` run without any error?
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: K-Fold
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of the 5-fold cross validation is:
+
+    ```console
+    Fold:  1
+    TRAIN: [2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9] TEST: [0 1]
+
+    Fold:  2
+    TRAIN: [0 1 4 5 6 7 8 9] TEST: [2 3]
+
+    Fold:  3
+    TRAIN: [0 1 2 3 6 7 8 9] TEST: [4 5]
+
+    Fold:  4
+    TRAIN: [0 1 2 3 4 5 8 9] TEST: [6 7]
+
+    Fold:  5
+    TRAIN: [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7] TEST: [8 9]
+    ```
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Cross validation (k-fold)
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+```console
+Scores on validation sets:
+ [0.62433594 0.61648956 0.62486602 0.59891024 0.59284295 0.61307055
+ 0.54630341 0.60742976 0.60014575 0.59574508]
+
+Mean of scores on validation sets:
+ 0.60201392526743
+
+Standard deviation of scores on validation sets:
+ 0.0214983822773466
+
+```
+
+The model is consistent across folds: it is stable. That's a first sign that the model is not over-fitted. The average R2 is 60% that's a good start ! To be improved...
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: GridsearchCV
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the code that runs the grid search is similar to:
+
+```python
+parameters = {'n_estimators':[10, 50, 75],
+            'max_depth':[4, 7, 10]}
+
+rf = RandomForestRegressor()
+gridsearch = GridSearchCV(rf,
+                        parameters,
+                        cv = 5,
+                        n_jobs=-1,
+                        scoring='neg_mean_squared_error')
+
+gridsearch.fit(X_train, y_train)
+```
+
+The answers that uses another list of parameters are accepted too !
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if these attributes were used:
+
+```python
+print(gridsearch.best_score_)
+print(gridsearch.best_params_)
+print(gridsearch.cv_results_)
+```
+
+The best score is -0.29028202683007526, that means that the MSE is ~0.29, it doesn't give any information since this metric is arbitrary. This score is the average of `neg_mean_squared_error` on all the validation sets.
+
+The best models params are `{'max_depth': 10, 'n_estimators': 75}`.
+
+Note that if the parameters used are different, the results should be different.
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the fitted estimator was used to compute the score on the test set: `gridsearch.score(X_test, y_test)`. The MSE score is ~0.27. The score I got on the test set is close to the score I got on the validation sets. It means the models is not over fitted.
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Validation curve and Learning curve
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the outputted plot looks like the plot below. The two important points to check are: The training score has to converge towards `1` and the cross-validation score reaches a plateau around `0.9` from `max_depth = 10`
+
+![alt text][logo_ex5q1]
+
+[logo_ex5q1]: ../w2_day5_ex5_q1.png "Validation curve "
+
+The code that generated the data in the plot is:
+
+```python
+from sklearn.model_selection import validation_curve
+
+clf = RandomForestClassifier()
+param_range = np.arange(1,30,2)
+train_scores, test_scores = validation_curve(clf,
+                                            X,
+                                            y,
+                                            param_name="max_depth",
+                                            param_range=param_range,
+                                            scoring="roc_auc",
+                                            n_jobs=-1)
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the outputted plots looks like:
+
+![alt text][logo_ex5q2]
+
+[logo_ex5q2]: ../w2_day5_ex5_q2.png "Learning curve "

subjects/ai/natural-language-processing-with-spacy/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+# Natural Language processing with Spacy
+
+Spacy is a natural language processing (NLP) library for Python designed to have fast performance, and with word embedding models built in, it’s perfect for a quick and easy start. I don't need to detail what spaCy does, it is perfectly summarized by spaCy in this article: **spaCy 101: Everything you need to know**.
+
+Today, we will learn to use a pre-trained embedding to convert a text into a vector to compute similarity between words or sentences. Remember, embeddings translate large sparse vectors into a lower-dimensional space that preserves semantic relationships.
+Word embeddings is a technique where individual words of a domain or language are represented as real-valued vectors in a lower dimensional space. The BoW representation's dimension depends on the size of the vocabulary. But it can easily reach 10k words. We will also learn to use NER and Part-of-speech. NER allows to identify and segment the named entities and classify or categorize them under various predefined classes. Part-of-speech is a special label assigned to each token (word) in a text corpus to indicate the part of speech and often also other grammatical categories such as tense, number (plural/singular), case etc.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Embedding 1
+- Exercise 2: Tokenization
+- Exercise 3: Embeddings 2
+- Exercise 4: Sentences' similarity
+- Exercise 5: NER
+- Exercise 6: Part-of-speech tags
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+- Pandas
+- Spacy
+- Scikit-learn
+- Matplotlib
+
+I suggest to use the most recent libraries.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+- https://spacy.io/usage/spacy-101
+- https://spacy.io/api/doc
+- https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/06/nlp-application-named-entity-recognition-ner-in-python-with-spacy/
+- https://medium.com/mlearning-ai/nlp-04-part-of-speech-tagging-in-spacy-dc3e239c2726
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `jupyter`, `spacy`, `sklearn`, `matplotlib`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Embedding 1
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to load an embedding on SpaCy.
+
+1. Install and load `en_core_web_sm` version `3.4.0` [embedding](https://github.com/explosion/spacy-models/releases/tag/en_core_web_sm-3.4.0). Compute the embedding of `car`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Tokenization
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to tokenize a document using Spacy. We did this using NLTK yesterday.
+
+1. Tokenize the text below and print the tokens
+
+   ```
+       text = "Tokenize this sentence. And this one too."
+
+   ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Embeddings 2
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use SpaCy embedding on a document.
+
+1. Compute the embedding of all the words in this sentence. The language model considered is `en_core_web_md`
+
+```
+"laptop computer coffee tea water liquid dog cat kitty"
+```
+
+2. Plot the pairwise cosine distances between all the words in a HeatMap.
+
+![alt text][logo]
+
+[logo]: ./w3day05ex1_plot.png "Plot"
+
+https://medium.com/datadriveninvestor/cosine-similarity-cosine-distance-6571387f9bf8
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Sentences' similarity
+
+The goal of this exerice is to learn to compute the similarity between two sentences. As explained in the documentation: **The word embedding of a full sentence is simply the average over all different words**. This is how `similarity` works in SpaCy. This small use case is very interesting because if we build a corpus of sentences that express an intention as **buy shoes**, then we can detect this intention and use it to propose shoes advertisement for customers. The language model used in this exercise is `en_core_web_sm`.
+
+1. Compute the similarities (3 in total) between these sentences:
+
+   ```
+   sentence_1 = "I want to buy shoes"
+   sentence_2 = "I would love to purchase running shoes"
+   sentence_3 = "I am in my room"
+
+   ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: NER
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use a Named entity recognition algorithm to detect entities.
+
+```
+Apple Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California, that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. It is considered one of the Big Five companies in the U.S. information technology industry, along with Amazon, Google, Microsoft, and Facebook.
+Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell Wozniak's Apple I personal computer, though Wayne sold his share back within 12 days. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc., in January 1977, and sales of its computers, including the Apple I and Apple II, grew quickly.
+```
+
+1. Extract all named entities in the text as well as the label of the named entity.
+
+2. The NER is also useful to remove ambigous entities. From a conceptual standpoint, disambiguation is the process of determining the most probable meaning of a specific phrase. For example in the sentence below, the word `apple` is present twice in the sentence. The first time to mention the fruit and the second to mention a company. Run the NER on this sentence and print the named entity, the `start_char`, the `end_char` and the label of the named entity.
+
+```
+Paul eats an apple while watching a movie on his Apple device.
+```
+
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named-entity_recognition
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Part-of-speech tags
+
+The goal od this exercise is to learn to use the Part-of-speech tags (**POS TAG**) using Spacy. As explained in wikipedia, the POS TAG is the process of marking up a word in a text (corpus) as corresponding to a particular part of speech, based on both its definition and its context.
+
+Example
+
+The sentence: **"Heat water in a large vessel"** is tagged this way after the POS TAG:
+
+- heat verb (noun)
+- water noun (verb)
+- in prep (noun, adv)
+- a det (noun)
+- large adj (noun)
+- vessel noun
+
+The data `news_amazon.txt` used is a news paper about Amazon.
+
+1. Return all sentences mentioning **Bezos** as a NNP (tag).

subjects/ai/natural-language-processing-with-spacy/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Do `import jupyter`, `import pandas` and `import spacy` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Embedding 1
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the embedding's shape is `(96,)`
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the 20 first values of the vector sum to `2.9790137708187103`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Tokenization
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the tokens printed are:
+
+    ```
+    Tokenize
+    this
+    sentence
+    .
+    And
+    this
+    one
+    too
+    .
+    ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Embeddings 2
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the embeddings of each word has a shape of `(300,)` and if the first 20 values of the embedding of laptop are:
+
+```
+array([-0.37639 , -0.075521,  0.4908  ,  0.19863 , -0.11088 , -0.076145,
+    -0.30367 , -0.69663 ,  0.87048 ,  0.54388 ,  0.42523 ,  0.18045 ,
+    -0.4358  , -0.32606 , -0.70702 , -0.069127, -0.42674 ,  2.4147  ,
+        0.26806 ,  0.46584 ], dtype=float32)
+
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is
+
+![alt text][logo]
+
+[logo]: ../w3day05ex1_plot.png "Plot"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Sentences' similarity
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the similarities between the sentences are:
+
+```
+sentence_1 <=> sentence 2 : 0.7073220863266589
+sentence_1 <=> sentence 3: 0.42663743263528325
+sentence_2 <=> sentence 3: 0.3336274235605957
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: NER
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the ouptut of the NER is
+
+    ```
+    Apple Inc. ORG
+    American NORP
+    Cupertino GPE
+    California GPE
+    Five CARDINAL
+    U.S. GPE
+    Amazon ORG
+    Google ORG
+    Microsoft ORG
+    Facebook ORG
+    Apple ORG
+    Steve Jobs PERSON
+    Steve Wozniak PERSON
+    Ronald Wayne PERSON
+    April 1976 DATE
+    Wozniak PERSON
+    Apple ORG
+    Wayne PERSON
+    12 days DATE
+    Apple Computer, Inc. ORG
+    January 1977 DATE
+    Apple ORG
+    Apple II ORG
+    ```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output shows that the first occurence of apple is not a named entity. In my case here is what the NER returns:
+
+    ```
+    Paul 1 5 PERSON
+    Apple 50 55 ORG
+
+    ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Part-of-speech tags
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the sentences outputed are:
+
+```
+INFO:  Bezos PROPN NNP
+Sentence:  Amazon (AMZN) enters 2021 with plenty of big opportunities, but is losing its lauded Chief Executive Jeff Bezos, who announced his plan to step aside in the third quarter.
+
+
+INFO:  Bezos PROPN NNP
+Sentence:  Bezos will hand off his role as chief executive to Andy Jassy, the CEO of its cloud computing unit.
+
+
+INFO:  Bezos PROPN NNP
+Sentence:  He's not leaving, as Bezos will transition to the role of Executive Chairman and remain active.
+
+
+INFO:  Bezos PROPN NNP
+Sentence:  "When you look at our financial results, what you're actually seeing are the long-run cumulative results of invention," Bezos said in written remarks with the Amazon earnings release.
+```

subjects/ai/natural-language-processing-with-spacy/resources/news_amazon.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+Amazon (AMZN) enters 2021 with plenty of big opportunities, but is losing its lauded Chief Executive Jeff Bezos, who announced his plan to step aside in the third quarter. Given that, is Amazon stock a buy?
+
+Bezos will hand off his role as chief executive to Andy Jassy, the CEO of its cloud computing unit. He's not leaving, as Bezos will transition to the role of Executive Chairman and remain active. But one Wall Street analyst thinks the changing of the guard is further evidence of a pivotal shift in Amazon's long-term strategy that will alter the course of its business operations.
+
+D.A. Davidson analyst Tom Forte believes that Amazon is steadily evolving into being a much larger services company. The idea is, rather than disrupt and destroy businesses as it has frequently done, Amazon will instead try to help them. They'll cooperate with Amazon but still be in competition with it. It's a business strategy referred to as "coopetition."
+
+"It's the newer, kinder, gentler Amazon," Forte told Investor's Business Daily. "They'll help you make more money rather than take away all your sales."
+
+The massive warehousing and shipping abilities Amazon continues to build would be made more widely available to other businesses. Not only would Amazon help them advertise and sell products, it might also provide logistics services, storage and shipping. Also, if a company needs video-streaming help, Amazon Video has them covered. And its cloud services operation, the largest worldwide, is already used by thousands of businesses large and small.
+
+Amazon Stock Gets Boost From Sizzling Earnings Report
+The management shift was announced the same day Amazon turned in a sizzling fourth-quarter earnings report that smashed expectations. Earnings were double what analysts expected. And company revenue in the quarter broke above $100 billion for the first time.
+
+Amazon carries plenty of big opportunities into 2021, providing plenty of fuel for continued growth in Amazon stock.
+
+"When you look at our financial results, what you're actually seeing are the long-run cumulative results of invention," Bezos said in written remarks with the Amazon earnings release. "Right now I see Amazon at its most inventive ever, making it an optimal time for this transition."
+
+There are other compelling reasons why Amazon would want to go down this path. The service business is highly profitable. Moreover, the new Amazon could ease the pressure it's receiving in Congress over regulatory and antitrust concerns. Congress increasingly views Amazon as an overwhelming threat to fair competition.

subjects/ai/natural-language-processing/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+# Natural Language processing
+
+“NLP makes it possible for humans to talk to machines:” This branch of AI enables computers to understand, interpret, and manipulate human language. This technology is one of the most broadly applied areas of machine learning and is critical in effectively analyzing massive quantities of unstructured, text-heavy data.
+
+Machine learning algorithms cannot work with raw text directly. Rather, the text must be converted into vectors of numbers. In natural language processing, a common technique for extracting features from text is to place all of the words that occur in the text in an unordered bucket. This aproach is called a bag of words model or BoW for short. It’s referred to as a “bag” of words because any information about the structure of the sentence is lost. This is useful to train usual machine learning models on text data. Other types of models as RNNs or LSTMs take as input a complete and ordered sequence.
+
+Almost every Natural Language Processing (NLP) task requires text to be preprocessed before training a model. The article **Your Guide to Natural Language Processing (NLP)** gives a very good introduction to NLP.
+
+Today, we we will learn to preprocess text data and to create a bag of word representation. Les packages NLTK and Spacy to do the preprocessing
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Lower case
+- Exercise 2: Punctuation
+- Exercise 3: Tokenization
+- Exercise 4: Stop words
+- Exercise 5: Stemming
+- Exercise 6: Text preprocessing
+- Exercise 7: Bag of Word representation
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+- Pandas
+- Scikit Learn
+- NLTK
+
+I suggest to use the most recent libraries.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/your-guide-to-natural-language-processing-nlp-48ea2511f6e1
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/word-embeddings-for-nlp-5b72991e01d4
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `jupyter`, `nltk` and `scikit-learn`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Lowercase
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to lowercase text data in Python. Note that if the volume of data is low the text data can be stored in a Pandas DataFrame or Series. But, when dealing with high volumes (high but not huge), using a Pandas DataFrame or Series is not efficient. Data structures as dictionaries or list are more adapted.
+
+```
+list_ = ["This is my first NLP exercise", "wtf!!!!!"]
+series_data = pd.Series(list_, name='text')
+
+```
+
+1. Print all texts in lowercase
+2. Print all texts in upper case
+
+Note: Do not change the text manually!
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exerice 2: Punctuation
+
+The goal of this exerice is to learn to deal with punctuation. In Natural Language Processing, some basic approaches as Bag of Words model the text as an unordered combination of words. In that case the punctuation is not always useful as it doesn't add information to the model. That is why is removed.
+
+1. Remove the punctuation from this sentence. All characters in !"#$%&'()\*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^\_`{|}~ are considered as punctuation.
+
+   ```
+
+   Remove, this from .? the sentence !!!! !"#&'()*+,-./:;<=>_
+
+   ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Tokenization
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to tokenize as text. This step is important because it splits the text into token. A token could be a sentence or a word.
+
+```
+text = """Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency invented in 2008 by an unknown person or group of people using the name Satoshi Nakamoto. The currency began use in 2009 when its implementation was released as open-source software."""
+
+```
+
+1. Tokenize this text using `sent_tokenize` from NLTK.
+
+2. Tokenize this text using `word_tokenize` from NLTK.
+
+_Ressource_:
+https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2019/07/how-get-started-nlp-6-unique-ways-perform-tokenization/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Stop words
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to remove stop words with NLTK. Stop words usually refers to the most common words in a language. For example: "and", "is", "a" are stop words and do not add information to a sentence.
+
+```
+text = """
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to remove stop words with NLTK.  Stop words usually refers to the most common words in a language.
+"""
+```
+
+1. Remove stop words from this sentence and return the list of work tokens without stop words.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Stemming
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use stemming using NLTK. As explained in details in the article, stemming is the process of reducing inflection in words to their root forms such as mapping a group of words to the same stem even if the stem itself is not a valid word in the Language.
+
+Note: The output of a stemmer is a word that may not exist in the dictionnary.
+
+```
+text = """
+The interviewer interviews the president in an interview
+"""
+```
+
+1. Return the list of the stemmed tokens.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Text preprocessing
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to create a function to prepocess and clean a text using NLTK.
+
+Put this text in a variable:
+
+```
+01 Edu System presents an innovative curriculum in software engineering and programming. With a renowned industry-leading reputation, the curriculum has been rigorously designed for learning skills of the digital world and technology industry. Taking a different approach than the classic teaching methods today, learning is facilitated through a collective and co-créative process in a professional environment.
+
+```
+
+1. Write a function that takes as input the text and returns it preprocessed.
+
+The preprocessing is composed of:
+
+    1. Lowercase
+    2. Removing Punctuation
+    3. Tokenization
+    4. Stopword Filtering
+    5. Stemming
+
+_Ressources: https://towardsdatascience.com/nlp-preprocessing-with-nltk-3c04ee00edc0_
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 7: Bag of Word representation
+
+The goal of this exercise is to understand how to create a Bag of Word (BoW) model on a corpus of texts. More precesily we will create a labeled data set from textual data using a word count matrix.
+
+_Ressources: https://machinelearningmastery.com/gentle-introduction-bag-words-model/_
+
+As explained in the ressource, the Bag of word reprensation makes the assumption that the order in which the words appear in a text doesn't matter. There are different types of Bag of words reprensations:
+
+- Boolean: Each document is a boolean vector
+- Wordcount: Each document is a word count vector
+- TFIDF: Each document is a score vector. The score is detailed in the next exercise.
+
+The data `tweets_train.txt` contains tweets labeled with a sentiment. It gives the positivity of a tweet.
+
+Steps:
+
+1. Preprocess the data using the function implemented in the previous exercise. And, using from `CountVectorizer` of scikitlearn with `max_features=500` compute the wordcount of the tweets. The output is a sparse matrix.
+
+- Check the shape of the word count matrix
+- Set **max_features** to 500 of the initial size of the dictionnary.
+
+        Reminder:  Given that a data set is often described as an m x n matrix in which m is the number of rows  and n is the number of columns: features.  It is strongly recommanded to work with m >> n. The value of the ratio depends on the signal existing in the data set and on the model complexity.
+
+2. Using from_spmatrix from scikitlearn create a DataFrame with documents in rows and dictionary in columns.
+
+|     | and | boat | compute |
+| --: | --: | ---: | ------: |
+|   0 |   0 |    2 |       0 |
+|   1 |   0 |    0 |       1 |
+|   2 |   1 |    0 |       0 |
+
+3. Create a dataframe with the labels
+   - 1: positive
+   - 0: neutral
+   - -1: negative
+
+|     | target |
+| --: | -----: |
+|   0 |     -1 |
+|   1 |      0 |
+|   2 |      1 |
+
+_Ressources: https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.feature_extraction.text.CountVectorizer.html_

subjects/ai/natural-language-processing/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,208 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import pandas`, `import nltk` and `import sklearn` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Lower case
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+```
+0    this is my first nlp exercise
+1                         wtf!!!!!
+Name: text, dtype: object
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is:
+
+```
+0    THIS IS MY FIRST NLP EXERCISE
+1                         WTF!!!!!
+Name: text, dtype: object
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Punctuation
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the ouptut doesn't contain punctuation `` !"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[]^_`{|}~ ``. Do not take into account the spaces in the output. The output should be as:
+
+```
+Remove this from  the sentence
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Tokenization
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the ouptut is:
+
+```
+['Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency invented in 2008 by an unknown person or group of people using the name Satoshi Nakamoto.',
+'The currency began use in 2009 when its implementation was released as open-source software.']
+
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the ouptut is:
+
+```
+['Bitcoin',
+'is',
+'a',
+'cryptocurrency',
+'invented',
+'in',
+'2008',
+'by',
+'an',
+'unknown',
+'person',
+'or',
+'group',
+'of',
+'people',
+'using',
+'the',
+'name',
+'Satoshi',
+'Nakamoto',
+'.',
+'The',
+'currency',
+'began',
+'use',
+'in',
+'2009',
+'when',
+'its',
+'implementation',
+'was',
+'released',
+'as',
+'open-source',
+'software',
+'.']
+
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Stop words
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if, using NLTK, the ouptut is:
+
+```
+['The', 'goal', 'exercise', 'learn', 'remove', 'stop', 'words', 'NLTK', '.', 'Stop', 'words', 'usually', 'refers', 'common', 'words', 'language', '.']
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Stemming
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if, using NLTK, the output is:
+
+```
+['the', 'interview', 'interview', 'the', 'presid', 'in', 'an', 'interview']
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Text preprocessing
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+
+```
+['01',
+ 'edu',
+ 'system',
+ 'present',
+ 'innov',
+ 'curriculum',
+ 'softwar',
+ 'engin',
+ 'program',
+ 'renown',
+ 'industrylead',
+ 'reput',
+ 'curriculum',
+ 'rigor',
+ 'design',
+ 'learn',
+ 'skill',
+ 'digit',
+ 'world',
+ 'technolog',
+ 'industri',
+ 'take',
+ 'differ',
+ 'approach',
+ 'classic',
+ 'teach',
+ 'method',
+ 'today',
+ 'learn',
+ 'facilit',
+ 'collect',
+ 'cocré',
+ 'process',
+ 'profession',
+ 'environ']
+
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 7: Bag of Word representation
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of the CountVectorizer is
+
+```
+<6588x500 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.int64'>'
+	with 79709 stored elements in Compressed Sparse Row format>
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output of `print(df.iloc[:3,400:403].to_markdown())` is:
+
+    |    |   talk |   team |   tell |
+    |---:|-------:|-------:|-------:|
+    |  0 |      0 |      0 |      0 |
+    |  1 |      0 |      0 |      0 |
+    |  2 |      0 |      0 |      0 |
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the shape of the wordcount DataFrame `(6588, 501)` is and if the output of `print(df.iloc[300:304,499:501].to_markdown())` is:
+
+    |     |   youtube |   label |
+    |----:|----------:|--------:|
+    | 300 |         0 |       0 |
+    | 301 |         0 |      -1 |
+    | 302 |         1 |       0 |
+    | 303 |         0 |       1 |

subjects/ai/neural-networks/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,274 @@
+# Neural Networks
+
+Last week you learnt about some Machine Learning algorithms as Random Forest or Gradient Boosting. Neural Networks are another type of Machine Learning algorithms that are intensively used because of their efficiency. Neural networks are a set of algorithms, modeled loosely after the human brain, that are designed to recognize patterns. They interpret sensory data through a kind of machine perception, labeling or clustering raw input. The patterns they recognize are numerical, contained in vectors, into which all real-world data, be it images, sound, text or time series, must be translated. Different types of neural networks exist and are specific to some use-cases. For example CNN for images, RNN or LSTMs for time-series or text, etc ...
+
+Today we will focus on Artificial Neural Networks. The goal is to understand how do the neural networks work, train them on data and understand the challenges of training a neural network. The ressources below expalin very well the mecanisms behind neural networks, step by step.
+
+However the exercices won't cover architectures as RNN, LSTM - used on sequences as time series or text, CNN - used a lot on images processing. One of the projects will require to know how to use the special architectures. To do so, I suggest that you go through this lesson: https://fr.coursera.org/specializations/deep-learning.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: The neuron
+- Exercise 2: Neural network
+- Exercise 3: Log loss
+- Exercise 4: Forward propagation
+- Exercise 5: Regression
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of NumPy I used to do the exercises: 1.18.1_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### **Resources**
+
+- https://victorzhou.com/blog/intro-to-neural-networks/
+
+- https://srnghn.medium.com/deep-learning-overview-of-neurons-and-activation-functions-1d98286cf1e4
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/machine-learning-for-beginners-an-introduction-to-neural-networks-d49f22d238f9
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `numpy` and `jupyter`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: The neuron
+
+The goal of this exercise is to understand the role of a neuron and to implement a neuron.
+
+An artificial neuron, the basic unit of the neural network, (also referred to as a perceptron) is a mathematical function. It takes one or more inputs that are multiplied by values called “weights” and added together. This value is then passed to a non-linear function, known as an activation function, to become the neuron’s output.
+
+As desbribed in the article, **a neuron takes inputs, does some math with them, and produces one output**.
+
+Let us assume there are 2 inputs. Here are the three steps involved in the neuron:
+
+1. Each input is multiplied by a weight
+   - x1 -> x1 \* w1
+   - x2 -> x2 \* w2
+2. The weighted inputs are added together with a biais b
+   - (x1 _ w1) + (x2 _ w2) + b
+3. The sum is passed through an activation function
+
+   - y = f((x1 _ w1) + (x2 _ w2) + b)
+
+   - The activation function is a function you know from W2DAY2 (Logistic Regression): **the sigmoid**
+
+Example:
+
+x1 = 2 , x2 = 3 , w1 = 0, w2= 1, b = 4
+
+1. Step 1: Multiply by a weight
+   - x1 -> 2 \* 0 = 0
+   - x2 -> 3 \* 1 = 3
+2. Step 2: Add weigthed inputs and bias
+   - 0 + 3 + 4 = 7
+3. Step 3: Activation function
+   - y = f(7) = 0.999
+
+---
+
+1. Implement a the function feedforward of the class `Neuron` that takes as input the inputs (x1, x2) and that uses the attributes: the weights and the biais to return y:
+
+   ```
+   class Neuron:
+   def __init__(self, weight1, weight2, bias):
+       self.weights_1 = weight1
+       self.weights_2 = weight2
+       self.bias = bias
+
+   def feedforward(cls, x1, x2):
+       #TODO
+       return y
+
+
+   ```
+
+Note: if you are confortable with matrix multiplication, feel free to vectorize the operations as done in the article.
+
+https://victorzhou.com/blog/intro-to-neural-networks/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exerice 2: Neural network
+
+The goal of this exercise is to understand how to combine three neurons to form a neural network. A neural newtwork is nothing else than neurons connected together. As shown in the figure the neural network is composed of **layers**:
+
+- Input layer: it only represents input data. **It doesn't contain neurons**.
+- Output layer: it represents the last layer. It contains a neuron (in some cases more than 1).
+- Hidden layer: any layer between the input (first) layer and output (last) layer. Many hidden layers can be stacked. When there are many hidden layers, the neural networks is deep.
+
+Notice that the neuron **o1** in the output layer takes as input the output of the neurons **h1** and **h2** in the hidden layer.
+
+In exercise 1, you implemented this neuron.
+![alt text][neuron]
+
+[neuron]: ./w3_day1_neuron.png "Plot"
+
+Now, we add two more neurons:
+
+- h2, the second neuron of the hidden layer
+- o1, the neuron of the output layer
+
+![alt text][nn]
+
+[nn]: ./w3_day1_neural_network.png "Plot"
+
+1. Implement the function `feedforward` of the class `OurNeuralNetwork` that takes as input the input data and returns the output y. Return the output for these neurons:
+
+   ```
+   neuron_h1 = Neuron(1,2,-1)
+   neuron_h2 = Neuron(0.5,1,0)
+   neuron_o1 = Neuron(2,0,1)
+   ```
+
+   ```
+   class OurNeuralNetwork:
+
+       def __init__(self, neuron_h1, neuron_h2, neuron_o1):
+           self.h1 = neuron_h1
+           self.h2 = neuron_h2
+           self.o1 = neuron_o1
+
+       def feedforward(self, x1, x2):
+       # The inputs for o1 are the outputs from h1 and h2
+       # TODO
+           return y
+
+   ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Log loss
+
+The goal of this exercise is to implement the Log loss function. As mentioned last week, this function is used in classification as a **loss function**. It means that the better the classifier is, the smaller the loss function is. W2D1, you implemented the gradient descent on the MSE loss to update the weights of the linear regression. Similarly, the minimization of the Log loss leads to finding optimal weights.
+
+Log loss: - 1/n * Sum[(y_true*log(y_pred) + (1-y_true)\*log(1-y_pred))]
+
+1.  Create a function `log_loss_custom` and compute the loss for the data below:
+
+        ```
+        y_true = np.array([0,1,1,0,1])
+        y_pred = np.array([0.1,0.8,0.6, 0.5, 0.3])
+        ```
+        Check that `log_loss` from `sklearn.metrics` returns the same result
+
+    https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.metrics.log_loss.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Forward propagation
+
+The goal of this exerice is to compute the log loss on the output of the forward propagation. The data used is the tiny data set below.
+
+| name | math | chemistry | exam_success |
+| :--- | ---: | --------: | -----------: |
+| Bob  |   12 |        15 |            1 |
+| Eli  |   10 |         9 |            0 |
+| Tom  |   18 |        18 |            1 |
+| Ryan |   13 |        14 |            1 |
+
+The goal if the network is to predict the success at the exam given math and chemistry grades. The inputs are `math` and `chemistry` and the target is `exam_sucess`.
+
+1. Compute and return the output of the neural network for each of the students. Here are the weights and biases of the neural network:
+
+   ```
+   neuron_h1 = Neuron(0.05, 0.001, 0)
+   neuron_h2 = Neuron(0.02, 0.003, 0)
+   neuron_o1 = Neuron(2,0,0)
+   ```
+
+2. Compute the logloss for the data given the output of the neural network with the 4 students.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Regression
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to adapt the output layer to regression.
+As a reminder, one of reasons for which the sigmoid is used in classification is because it contracts the output between 0 and 1 which is the expected output range for a probability (W2D2: Logistic regression). However, the output of the regression is not a probability.
+
+In order to perform a regression using a neural network, the activation function of the neuron on the output layer has to be modified to **identity function**. In mathematics, the identity function is: **f(x) = x**. In other words it means that it returns the input as so. The three steps become:
+
+1. Each input is multiplied by a weight
+   - x1 -> x1 \* w1
+   - x2 -> x2 \* w2
+2. The weighted inputs are added together with a biais b
+   - (x1 _ w1) + (x2 _ w2) + b
+3. The sum is passed through an activation function
+   - y = f((x1 _ w1) + (x2 _ w2) + b)
+   - The activation function is **the identity**
+   - y = (x1 _ w1) + (x2 _ w2) + b
+
+All other neurons' activation function **doesn't change**.
+
+1. Adapt the neuron class implemented in exercise 1. It now takes as a parameter `regression` which is boolean. When its value is `True`, `feedforward` should use the identity function as activation function instead of the sigmoid function.
+
+   ```
+   class Neuron:
+   def __init__(self, weight1, weight2, bias, regression):
+       self.weights_1 = weight1
+       self.weights_2 = weight2
+       self.bias = bias
+       #TODO
+
+   def feedforward(self, x1, x2):
+       #TODO
+       return y
+
+   ```
+
+   - Compute the output for:
+
+     ```
+     neuron = Neuron(0,1,4, True)
+     neuron.feedforward(2,3)
+     ```
+
+2. Now, the goal of the network is to predict the physics' grade at the exam given math and chemistry grades. The inputs are `math` and `chemistry` and the target is `physics`.
+
+| name | math | chemistry | physics |
+| :--- | ---: | --------: | ------: |
+| Bob  |   12 |        15 |      16 |
+| Eli  |   10 |         9 |      10 |
+| Tom  |   18 |        18 |      19 |
+| Ryan |   13 |        14 |      16 |
+
+Compute and return the output of the neural network for each of the students. Here are the weights and biases of the neural network:
+
+```
+    #replace regression by the right value
+    neuron_h1 = Neuron(0.05, 0.001, 0, regression)
+    neuron_h2 = Neuron(0.002, 0.003, 0, regression)
+    neuron_o1 = Neuron(2,7,10, regression)
+```
+
+3. Compute the MSE for the 4 students.

subjects/ai/neural-networks/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Do `import jupyter` and `import numpy` run without any error ?
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: The neuron
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if this code:
+
+```
+    neuron = Neuron(0,1,4)
+    neuron.feedforward(2,3)
+```
+
+ returns **0.9990889488055994**.
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Neural network
+
+##### The question 1 is validated the output is: **0.9524917424084265**
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Log loss
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is: **0.5472899351247816**.
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Forward propagation
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is:
+```
+Bob: 0.7855253278357536
+Eli: 0.7771516558846259
+Tom: 0.8067873659804015
+Ryan: 0.7892343955586032
+```
+##### The question 2 is validated if the logloss for the 4 students is **0.5485133607757963**.
+
+---
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Regression
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is **7**.
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the outputs are:
+
+```
+Bob: 14.918863163724454
+Eli: 14.83137890625537
+Tom: 15.086662606964074
+Ryan: 14.939270885974128
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the MSE is **10.237608699909138**

subjects/ai/nlp-scraper/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+# NLP-enriched News Intelligence platform
+
+The goal of this project is to build an NLP-enriched News Intelligence platform. News analysis is a trending and important topic. The analysts get their information from the news and the amount of available information is limitless. Having a platform that helps to detect the relevant information is definitely valuable.
+
+The platform connects to a news data source, detects the entities, detects the topic of the article, analyse the sentiment and ...
+
+### Scrapper
+
+News data source:
+
+- Find a news website that is easy to scrap. I could have chosen the website but the news' websites change their scraping policy frequently.
+- Store it:
+
+  - File system per day:
+    - URL, date unique id
+    - headline
+    - body of the article
+  - SQL database (optional)
+
+  from the last week otherwise the volume may be to high
+
+### NLP engine
+
+In production architectures, the NLP engine delivers a live output based on the news that are delivered in a live stream data by the scrapper. However, it required advanced Python skills that are not a pre-requisite for the AI branch.
+To simplify this step the scrapper and the NLP engine are used independently in the project. The scrapper fetches the news and store them in the data structure (either the file systeme or the SQL database) and then, the NLP engine runs on the stored data.
+
+Here how the NLP engine should process the news:
+
+### **1. Entities detection:**
+
+The goal is to detect all the entities in the document (headline and body). The type of entity we focus on is `ORG`. This corresponds to companies and organisations. This information should be stored.
+
+    - Detect all companies using SpaCy NER on the body of the text.
+
+https://towardsdatascience.com/named-entity-recognition-with-nltk-and-spacy-8c4a7d88e7da
+
+### **2. Topic detection:**
+
+The goal is to detect what the article is dealing with: Tech, Sport, Business, Entertainment or Politics. To do so, a labelled dataset is provided. From this dataset, build a classifier that learns to detect the right topic in the article. The trained model should be stored as `topic_classifier.pkl`. Make sure the model can be used easily (with the preprocessing pipeline built for instance) because the audit requires the auditor to test the model.
+
+Save the plot of learning curves (`learning_curves.png`) in `results` to prove that the model is trained correctly and not overfitted.
+
+- Learning constraints: **Score on test: > 95%**
+
+- **Optional**: If you want to train a news' topic classifier based on a more challenging dataset, you can use the following which based on 200k news headlines. https://www.kaggle.com/rmisra/news-category-dataset.
+
+### **3. Sentiment analysis:**
+
+The goal is to detect the sentiment of the news articles. To do so, use a pre-trained sentiment model. I suggest to use: NLTK.
+There are 3 reasons for which we use a pre-trained model:
+
+1. As a Data Scientist, you should learn to use a pre-trained model. There are so many models available and trained that sometimes you don't need to train one from scratch.
+2. Labelled news data for sentiment analysis are very expensive. Companies as SESAMm provide this kind of services.
+3. You already know how to train a sentiment analysis classifier ;-)
+
+### **4. Scandal detection **
+
+The goal is to detect environmental disaster for the detected companies. Here is the methodology that should be used:
+
+- Define keywords that correspond to environmental disaster that may be caused by companies: pollution, deforestation etc ... Here is an example of disaster we want to detect: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Erika. Pay attention to not use ambigous words that make sense in the context of an environmental disaster but also in another context. This would lead to detect a false positive natural disaster.
+
+- Compute the embeddings of the keywords.
+
+- Compute the distance between the embeddings of the keywords and all sentences that contain an entity. Explain in the `README.md` the embeddings chosen and why. Similarly explain the distance or similarity chosen and why.
+
+- Save the distance
+
+- Flag the top 10 articles.
+
+### 5. **Source analysis (optional)**
+
+The goal is to show insights about the news' source you scrapped.
+This requires to scrap data on at least 5 days (a week ideally). Save the plots in the `results` folder.
+
+Here are examples of insights:
+
+- Per day:
+
+  - Proportion of topics per day
+  - Number of articles
+  - Number of companies mentioned
+  - Sentiment per day
+
+- Per companies:
+
+  - Companies mentioned the most
+  - Sentiment per companies
+
+### Deliverables
+
+The structure of the project is:
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   topic_classification_data.csv
+│
+└───results
+│   │   topic_classifier.pkl
+│   │   learning_curves.png
+│   │   enhanced_news.csv
+|
+|───nlp_engine
+│
+
+```
+
+1.  Run the scrapper until it fetches at least 300 articles
+
+```
+python scrapper_news.py
+
+1. scrapping <URL>
+        requesting ...
+        parsing ...
+        saved in <path>
+
+2. scrapping <URL>
+        requesting ...
+        parsing ...
+        saved in <path>
+
+```
+
+2. Run on this 300 articles the NLP engine.
+
+Save a DataFrame:
+
+Date scrapped (date)
+Title (str)
+URL (str)
+Body (str)
+Org (str)
+Topics (list str)
+Sentiment (list float or float)
+Scandal_distance (float)
+Top_10 (bool)
+
+```prompt
+python nlp_enriched_news.py
+
+Enriching <URL>:
+
+Cleaning document ... (optional)
+
+---------- Detect entities ----------
+
+Detected <X> companies which are <company_1> and <company_2>
+
+---------- Topic detection ----------
+
+Text preprocessing ...
+
+The topic of the article is: <topic>
+
+---------- Sentiment analysis ----------
+
+Text preprocessing ... (optional)
+The title which is <title> is <sentiment>
+The body of the article is <sentiment>
+
+---------- Scandal detection ----------
+
+Computing embeddings and distance ...
+
+Environmental scandal detected for <entity>
+```
+
+I strongly suggest to create a data structure (dictionary for example) to save all the intermediate result. Then, a boolean argument `cache` fetched the intermediate results when they are already computed.
+
+Ressources:
+
+- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVv6mJpFOb0

subjects/ai/nlp-scraper/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+#### NLP-enriched News Intelligence platform
+
+##### Preliminary
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   topic_classification_data.csv
+│
+└───results
+│   │   topic_classifier.pkl
+│   │   learning_curves.png
+│   │   enhanced_news.csv
+|
+|───nlp_engine
+│
+
+```
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+###### Does the readme file give an introduction of the project, show the username, describe the feature engineering and show the best score the on the leaderboard ?
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+##### Scrapper
+
+##### There are at least 300 news articles stored in the file system or the database.
+
+##### Run the scrapper with `python scrapper_news.py` and fetch 3 documents. The scrapper is not expected to fetch 3 documents and stop by itself, you can stop it manually. It runs without any error and stores the 3 files as expected.
+
+##### Topic classifier
+
+###### Are the learning curves provided ?
+
+###### Do the learning curves prove the topics classifier is trained without correctly - without overfitting ?
+
+###### Can you run the topic classfier model on the test set without any error ?
+
+###### Does the topic classifier score an accuracy higher than 95% ?
+
+##### Scandal detection
+
+###### Does the `README.md` explain the choice of embeddings and distance ?
+
+###### Does the DataFrame flag the top 10 articles with the highest likelihood of environmental scandal ?
+
+###### Is the distance or similarity saved in the DataFrame ?
+
+#####
+
+##### NLP engine output on 300 articles
+
+###### Does the DataFrame contain 300 different rows ?
+
+###### Does the columns of the DataFrame are as expected ?
+
+```
+Date scrapped (date)
+Title (str)
+URL (str)
+Body (str)
+Org (str)
+Topics (list str)
+Sentiment (list float or float)
+Scandal_distance (float)
+Top_10 (bool)
+
+```
+
+##### Analyse the DataFrame with 300 articles: relevance of the topics matched, relevance of the sentiment, relevance of the scandal detected and relevance of the companies matched. The algorithms are not 100% accurate so you should expect a few issues in the results.
+
+##### NLP engine on 3 articles
+
+###### Can you run `python nlp_enriched_news.py` without any error ?
+
+###### Does the output of the nlp engine correspond to the output below?
+
+```prompt
+python nlp_enriched_news.py
+
+Enriching <URL>:
+
+Cleaning document ... (optional)
+
+---------- Detect entities ----------
+
+Detected <X> companies which are <company_1> and <company_2>
+
+---------- Topic detection ----------
+
+Text preprocessing ...
+
+The topic of the article is: <topic>
+
+---------- Sentiment analysis ----------
+
+Text preprocessing ... (optional)
+The title which is <title> is <sentiment>
+The body of the article is <sentiment>
+
+---------- Scandal detection ----------
+
+Computing embeddings and distance ...
+
+Environmental scandal detected for <entity>
+```
+
+##### Analyse the output: relevance of the topic(s) matched, relevance of the sentiment, relevance of the scandal detected (if detected on the three articles) and relevance of the companie(s) matched.

subjects/ai/numpy/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,255 @@
+# NumPy
+
+The goal of this day is to understand practical usage of **NumPy**. **NumPy** is a commonly used Python data analysis package. By using **NumPy**, you can speed up your workflow, and interface with other packages in the Python ecosystem, like scikit-learn, that use **NumPy** under the hood. **NumPy** was originally developed in the mid 2000s, and arose from an even older package called Numeric. This longevity means that almost every data analysis or machine learning package for Python leverages **NumPy** in some way.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Your first NumPy array
+- Exercise 2: Zeros
+- Exercise 3: Slicing
+- Exercise 4: Random
+- Exercise 5: Split, concatenate, reshape arrays
+- Exercise 6: Broadcasting and Slicing
+- Exercise 7: NaN
+- Exercise 8: Wine
+- Exercise 9: Football tournament
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of NumPy I used to do the exercises: 1.18.1_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### Resources
+
+- https://medium.com/fintechexplained/why-should-we-use-NumPy-c14a4fb03ee9
+- https://numpy.org/doc/
+- https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries and to learn to launch a `jupyter notebook`. Jupyter notebooks are very convenient as they allow to write and test code within seconds. However, it really easy to implement instable and not reproducible code using notebooks. Keep the notebook and the underlying code clean. An article below detail when the Notebook should be used. Notebook can be used for most of the exercices of the piscine as the goal is to experiment A LOT. But no worries, you'll be asked to build a more robust structure for all the projects.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python. However, for educational purpose you will install a specific version of Python in this exercise.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with Python `3.8`, with the following libraries: `numpy`, `jupyter`. Save the installed packages in `requirements.txt` in the current directory.
+
+2. Launch a `jupyter notebook` on port `8891` and create a notebook named `Notebook_ex00`. `JupyterLab` can be used instead of Jupyter Notebook here.
+
+3. Put the text `H1 TITLE` as **heading level 1** and `H2 TITLE` as **heading level 2** in the first cell.
+
+4. Run `print("Buy the dip ?")` in the second cell
+
+### Resources:
+
+- https://www.python.org/
+- https://docs.conda.io/
+- https://jupyter.org/
+- https://numpy.org/
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/jypyter-notebook-shortcuts-bf0101a98330
+- https://odsc.medium.com/why-you-should-be-using-jupyter-notebooks-ea2e568c59f2
+- https://stackoverflow.com/questions/50777849/from-conda-create-requirements-txt-for-pip3
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Your first NumPy array
+
+The goal of this exercise is to use many Python data types in **NumPy** arrays. **NumPy** arrays are intensively used in **NumPy** and **Pandas**. They are flexible and allow to use optimized **NumPy** underlying functions.
+
+1. Create a NumPy array that contains: an integer, a float, a string, a dictionary, a list, a tuple, a set and a boolean. Add the following code at the end of your python file or in a cell of the jupyter notebook:
+
+```python
+for i in your_np_array:
+    print(type(i))
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Zeros
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to create a NumPy array with 0s.
+
+1. Create a NumPy array of dimension **300** with zeros without filling it manually
+2. Reshape it to **(3,100)**
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Slicing
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn NumPy indexing/slicing. It allows to access values of the NumPy array efficiently and without a for loop.
+
+1. Create a NumPy array of dimension 1 that contains all integers from 1 to 100 ordered.
+2. Without using a for loop and using the array created in Q1, create an array that contain all odd integers. The expected output is: `np.array([1,3,...,99])`. _Hint_: it takes one line
+3. Without using a for loop and using the array created in Q1, create an array that contain all even integers reversed. The expected output is: `np.array([100,98,...,2])`. _Hint_: it takes one line
+
+4. Using array of Q1, set the value of every 3 elements of the list (starting with the second) to 0. The expected output is: `np.array([[1,0,3,4,0,...,0,99,100]])`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Random
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to generate random data.
+In Data Science it is extremely useful to generate random data for many reasons:
+Lack of real data, create a random benchmark, use varied data sets.
+NumPy proposes a lot of options to generate random data. In statistics, assumptions are made on the distribution the data is from. All data distribution that can be generated randomly are described in the documentation. In this exercise we will focus on two distributions:
+
+- Uniform: For example, if your goal is to generate a random number from 1 to 100 and that the probability that all the numbers is equal you'll need the uniform distribution. NumPy provides `randint` and `uniform` to generate uniform distribution
+
+- Normal: The normal distribution is the most important probability distribution in statistics because it fits many natural phenomena.For example, if you need to generate a data sample that represents **Heights of 14 Year Old Girls** it can be done using the normal distribution. In that case, we need two parameters: the mean (1m51) and the standard deviation (0.0741m). NumPy provides `randn` to generate normal distribution (among other)
+
+https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/random/generator.html
+
+1. Set the seed to 888
+2. Generate a **one-dimensional** array of size 100 with a normal distribution
+3. Generate a **two-dimensional** array of size 8,8 with random integers from 1 to 10 - both included (same probability for each integer)
+4. Generate a **three-dimensional** of size 4,2,5 array with random integers from 1 to 17 - both included (same probability for each integer)
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Split, concatenate, reshape arrays
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to concatenate and reshape arrays.
+
+1. Generate an array with integers from 1 to 50: `array([1,...,50])`
+
+2. Generate an array with integers from 51 to 100: `array([51,...,100])`
+
+3. Using `np.concatenate`, concatenate the two arrays into: `array([1,...,100])`
+
+4. Reshape the previous array into:
+
+   ```console
+   array([[  1,  ... ,  10],
+               ...
+       [ 91,  ... , 100]])
+   ```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Broadcasting and Slicing
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to access values of n-dimensional arrays efficiently.
+
+1. Create an 2-dimensional array size 9,9 of 1s. Each value has to be an `int8`.
+2. Using **slicing**, output this array:
+
+   ```python
+   array([[1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
+       [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1],
+       [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1],
+       [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]], dtype=int8)
+   ```
+
+https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/ (section: Computation on Arrays: Broadcasting)
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 7: NaN
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to deal with missing data in NumPy and to manipulate NumPy arrays.
+
+Let us consider a 2-dimensional array that contains the grades at the past two exams. Some of the students missed the first exam. As the grade is missing it has been replaced with a `NaN`.
+
+1. Using `np.where` create a third column that is equal to the grade of the first exam if it exists and the second else. Add the column as the third column of the array.
+
+**Using a for loop or if/else statement is not allowed in this exercise.**
+
+```python
+import numpy as np
+
+generator = np.random.default_rng(123)
+grades = np.round(generator.uniform(low = 0.0, high = 10.0, size = (10, 2)))
+grades[[1,2,5,7], [0,0,0,0]] = np.nan
+print(grades)
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 8: Wine
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to perform a basic data analysis on real data using NumPy.
+
+The data set that will be used for this exercise is the red wine data set.
+
+https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/wine+quality
+
+How to tell if a given 2D array has null columns?
+
+1. Using `genfromtxt` load the data and reduce the size of the numpy array by optimizing the types. The sum of absolute differences between the original data set and the "memory" optimized one has to be smaller than 1.10**-3. I suggest to use `np.float32`. Check that the numpy array weights **76800 bytes\*\*.
+
+2. Print 2nd, 7th and 12th rows as a two dimensional array
+
+3. Is there any wine with a percentage of alcohol greater than 20% ? Return True or False
+
+4. What is the average % of alcohol on all wines in the data set ? If needed, drop `np.nan` values
+
+5. Compute the minimum, the maximum, the 25th percentile, the 50th percentile, the 75th percentile, the median (50th percentile) of the pH
+
+6. Compute the average quality of the wines having the 20% least sulphates
+
+7. Compute the mean of all variables for wines having the best quality. Same question for the wines having the worst quality
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 9: Football tournament
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use permutations, complex
+
+A Football tournament is organized in your city. There are 10 teams and the director of the tournaments wants you to create a first round as exciting as possible. To do so, you are allowed to choose the pairs. As a former data scientist, you implemented a model based on teams' current season performance. This models predicts the score difference between two teams. You used this algorithm to predict the score difference for every possible pair.
+The matrix returned is a 2-dimensional array that contains in (i,j) the score difference between team i and j. The matrix is in `model_forecasts.txt`.
+
+Using this output, what are the pairs that will give the most interesting matches ?
+
+If a team wins 7-1 the match is obviously less exciting than a match where the winner wins 2-1.
+The criteria that corresponds to **the pairs that will give the most interesting matches** is **the pairs that minimize the sum of squared differences**
+
+The expected output is:
+
+```console
+ [[m1_t1 m2_t1 m3_t1 m4_t1 m5_t1]
+  [m1_t2 m2_t2 m3_t2 m4_t2 m5_t2]]
+```
+
+- m1_t1 stands for match1_team1
+- m1_t1 plays against m1_t2 ...
+
+**Usage of for loop is not allowed, you may need to use the library** `itertools` **to create permutations**
+
+https://docs.python.org/3.9/library/itertools.html

subjects/ai/numpy/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,314 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated if all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### Install the virtual environment with `requirements.txt`
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda`, run `conda activate ex00`
+
+###### Does the shell specify the name `ex00` of the environment on the left ?
+
+##### Run `python --version`
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.8.x`? x could be any number from 0 to 9
+
+##### Does `import jupyter` and `import numpy` run without any error ?
+
+###### Have you used the followingthe command `jupyter notebook --port 8891` ?
+
+###### Is there a file named `Notebook_ex00.ipynb` in the working directory ?
+
+###### Is the following markdown code executed in a markdown cell in the first cell ?
+
+```
+# H1 TITLE
+## H2 TITLE
+```
+
+###### Does the second cell contain `print("Buy the dip ?")` and return `Buy the dip ?` in the output section ?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Your first NumPy array
+
+##### Add cell and run `type(your_numpy_array)`
+
+###### Is the your_numpy_array an NumPy array ? It can be checked with that should be equal to `numpy.ndarray`.
+
+##### Run all the cells of the notebook or `python main.py`
+
+###### Are the types printed are as follows ?
+
+```
+<class 'int'>
+<class 'float'>
+<class 'str'>
+<class 'dict'>
+<class 'list'>
+<class 'tuple'>
+<class 'set'>
+<class 'bool'>
+```
+
+##### Delete all the cells you added for the audit and restart the notebook
+
+TODO
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Zeros
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated is the solution uses `np.zeros` and if the shape of the array is `(300,)`
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the solution uses `reshape` and the shape of the array is `(3, 100)`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Slicing
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the solution doesn't involve a for loop or writing all integers from 1 to 100 and if the array is: `np.array([1,...,100])`. The list from 1 to 100 can be generated with an iterator: `range`.
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the solution is: `integers[::2]`
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the solution is: `integers[::-2]`
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the array is: `np.array([0, 1,0,3,4,0,...,0,99,100])`. There are at least two ways to get this results without for loop. The first one uses `integers[1::3] = 0` and the second involves creating a boolean array that indexes the array:
+
+```python
+mask = (integers+1)%3 == 0
+integers[mask] = 0
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Random
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### For this exercise, as the results may change depending on the version of the package or the OS, I give the code to correct the exercise. If the code is correct and the output is not the same as mine, it is accepted.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the solution is: `np.random.seed(888)`
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the solution is: `np.random.randn(100)`. The value of the first element is `0.17620087373662233`.
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the solution is: `np.random.randint(1,11,(8,8))`.
+
+```console
+    Given the NumPy version and the seed, you should have this output:
+
+    array([[ 7,  4,  8, 10,  2,  1,  1, 10],
+        [ 4,  1,  7,  4,  3,  5,  2,  8],
+        [ 3,  9,  7,  4,  9,  6, 10,  5],
+        [ 7, 10,  3, 10,  2,  1,  3,  7],
+        [ 3,  2,  3,  2, 10,  9,  5,  4],
+        [ 4,  1,  9,  7,  1,  4,  3,  5],
+        [ 3,  2, 10,  8,  6,  3,  9,  4],
+        [ 4,  4,  9,  2,  8,  5,  9,  5]])
+```
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the solution is: `np.random.randint(1,18,(4,2,5))`.
+
+```console
+    Given the NumPy version and the seed, you should have this output:
+
+    array([[[14, 16,  8, 15, 14],
+            [17, 13,  1,  4, 17]],
+
+        [[ 7, 15,  2,  8,  3],
+            [ 9,  4, 13,  9, 15]],
+
+        [[ 5, 11, 11, 14, 10],
+            [ 2,  1, 15,  3,  3]],
+
+        [[ 3, 10,  5, 16, 13],
+            [17, 12,  9,  7, 16]]])
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Split, concatenate, reshape arrays
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the generated array is based on an iterator as `range` or `np.arange`. Check that 50 is part of the array.
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the generated array is based on an iterator as `range` or `np.arange`. Check that 100 is part of the array.
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the array is concatenated this way `np.concatenate(array1,array2)`.
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the result is:
+
+```console
+    array([[  1,  ... ,  10],
+                ...
+        [ 91,  ... , 100]])
+```
+
+The easiest way is to use `array.reshape(10,10)`.
+
+https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/ (section: The Basics of NumPy Arrays)
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Broadcasting and Slicing
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output is the same as:
+
+`np.ones([9,9], dtype=np.int8)`
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the output is
+
+```console
+    array([[1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
+        [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1],
+        [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1],
+        [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]], dtype=int8)
+```
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is not accepted if the values of the array have been changed one by one manually. The usage of the for loop is not allowed neither.
+
+Here is an example of a possible solution:
+
+```console
+        x[1:8,1:8] = 0
+        x[2:7,2:7] = 1
+        x[3:6,3:6] = 0
+        x[4,4] = 1
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 7: NaN
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### This question is validated if, without having used a for loop or having filled the array manually, the output is:
+
+```console
+[[ 7.  1.  7.]
+[nan  2.  2.]
+[nan  8.  8.]
+[ 9.  3.  9.]
+[ 8.  9.  8.]
+[nan  2.  2.]
+[ 8.  2.  8.]
+[nan  6.  6.]
+[ 9.  2.  9.]
+[ 8.  5.  8.]]
+```
+
+There are two steps in this exercise:
+
+- Create the vector that contains the grade of the first exam if available or the second. This can be done using `np.where`:
+
+```python
+    np.where(np.isnan(grades[:, 0]), grades[:, 1],     grades[:, 0])
+```
+
+- Add this vector as third column of the array. Here are two ways:
+
+```python
+    np.insert(arr = grades, values = new_vector, axis = 1, obj = 2)
+
+    np.hstack((grades, new_vector[:, None]))
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 8: Wine
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### This question is validated if the text file has successfully been loaded in a NumPy array with
+
+`genfromtxt('winequality-red.csv', delimiter=',')` and the reduced arrays weights **76800 bytes**
+
+##### This question is validated if the output is
+
+```python
+array([[ 7.4   ,  0.7   ,  0.    ,  1.9   ,  0.076 , 11.    , 34.    ,
+        0.9978,  3.51  ,  0.56  ,  9.4   ,  5.    ],
+      [ 7.4   ,  0.66  ,  0.    ,  1.8   ,  0.075 , 13.    , 40.    ,
+        0.9978,  3.51  ,  0.56  ,  9.4   ,  5.    ],
+      [ 6.7   ,  0.58  ,  0.08  ,  1.8   ,  0.097 , 15.    , 65.    ,
+        0.9959,  3.28  ,  0.54  ,  9.2   ,  5.    ]])
+```
+
+This slicing gives the answer `my_data[[1,6,11],:]`.
+
+##### This question is validated if the answer if False. There many ways to get the answer: find the maximum or check values greater than 20.
+
+##### This question is validated if the answer is 10.422983114446529.
+
+##### This question is validated if the answers is:
+
+```console
+    pH stats
+    25 percentile:  3.21
+    50 percentile:  3.31
+    75 percentile:  3.4
+    mean:  3.3111131957473416
+    min:  2.74
+    max:  4.01
+```
+
+    > *Note: Using `percentile` or `median` may give different results depending on the duplicate values in the column. If you do not have my results please use `percentile`.*
+
+##### This question is validated if the answer is ~`5.2`. The first step is to get the percentile 20% of the column `sulphates`, then create a boolean array that contains `True` of the value is smaller than the percentile 20%, then select this rows with the column quality and compute the `mean`.
+
+##### This question is validated if the output for the best wines is:
+
+```python
+array([ 8.56666667,  0.42333333,  0.39111111,  2.57777778,  0.06844444,
+    13.27777778, 33.44444444,  0.99521222,  3.26722222,  0.76777778,
+    12.09444444,  8.        ])
+```
+
+##### This question is validated if the output for the bad wines is:
+
+```python
+array([ 8.36    ,  0.8845  ,  0.171   ,  2.635   ,  0.1225  , 11.      ,
+    24.9     ,  0.997464,  3.398   ,  0.57    ,  9.955   ,  3.      ])
+```
+
+This can be done in three steps: Get the max, create a boolean mask that indicates rows with max quality, use this mask to subset the rows with the best quality and compute the mean on the axis 0.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 9: Football tournament
+
+##### This exercise is validated if the output is:
+
+```console
+ [[0 3 1 2 4]
+  [7 6 8 9 5]]
+```

subjects/ai/numpy/data/model_forecasts.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+nan -9.480000000000000426e+00 1.415000000000000036e+01 1.126999999999999957e+01 -5.650000000000000355e+00 3.330000000000000071e+00 1.094999999999999929e+01 -2.149999999999999911e+00 5.339999999999999858e+00 -2.830000000000000071e+00
+9.480000000000000426e+00 nan 4.860000000000000320e+00 -8.609999999999999432e+00 7.820000000000000284e+00 -1.128999999999999915e+01 1.324000000000000021e+01 4.919999999999999929e+00 2.859999999999999876e+00 9.039999999999999147e+00
+-1.415000000000000036e+01 -1.126999999999999957e+01 nan 1.227999999999999936e+01 -2.410000000000000142e+00 6.040000000000000036e+00 -5.160000000000000142e+00 -3.870000000000000107e+00 -1.281000000000000050e+01 1.790000000000000036e+00
+5.650000000000000355e+00 -3.330000000000000071e+00 -1.094999999999999929e+01 nan -1.364000000000000057e+01 0.000000000000000000e+00 2.240000000000000213e+00 -3.609999999999999876e+00 -7.730000000000000426e+00 8.000000000000000167e-02
+2.149999999999999911e+00 -5.339999999999999858e+00 2.830000000000000071e+00 -4.860000000000000320e+00 nan -8.800000000000000044e-01 -8.570000000000000284e+00 2.560000000000000053e+00 -7.030000000000000249e+00 -6.330000000000000071e+00
+8.609999999999999432e+00 -7.820000000000000284e+00 1.128999999999999915e+01 -1.324000000000000021e+01 -4.919999999999999929e+00 nan -1.296000000000000085e+01 -1.282000000000000028e+01 -1.403999999999999915e+01 1.456000000000000050e+01
+-2.859999999999999876e+00 -9.039999999999999147e+00 -1.227999999999999936e+01 2.410000000000000142e+00 -6.040000000000000036e+00 5.160000000000000142e+00 nan -1.091000000000000014e+01 -1.443999999999999950e+01 -1.372000000000000064e+01
+3.870000000000000107e+00 1.281000000000000050e+01 -1.790000000000000036e+00 1.364000000000000057e+01 -0.000000000000000000e+00 -2.240000000000000213e+00 3.609999999999999876e+00 nan 1.053999999999999915e+01 -1.417999999999999972e+01
+7.730000000000000426e+00 -8.000000000000000167e-02 8.800000000000000044e-01 8.570000000000000284e+00 -2.560000000000000053e+00 7.030000000000000249e+00 6.330000000000000071e+00 1.296000000000000085e+01 nan -1.169999999999999929e+01
+1.282000000000000028e+01 1.403999999999999915e+01 -1.456000000000000050e+01 1.091000000000000014e+01 1.443999999999999950e+01 1.372000000000000064e+01 -1.053999999999999915e+01 1.417999999999999972e+01 1.169999999999999929e+01 nan

subjects/ai/numpy/data/winequality.names

@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+Citation Request:
+  This dataset is public available for research. The details are described in [Cortez et al., 2009]. 
+  Please include this citation if you plan to use this database:
+
+  P. Cortez, A. Cerdeira, F. Almeida, T. Matos and J. Reis. 
+  Modeling wine preferences by data mining from physicochemical properties.
+  In Decision Support Systems, Elsevier, 47(4):547-553. ISSN: 0167-9236.
+
+  Available at: [@Elsevier] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2009.05.016
+                [Pre-press (pdf)] http://www3.dsi.uminho.pt/pcortez/winequality09.pdf
+                [bib] http://www3.dsi.uminho.pt/pcortez/dss09.bib
+
+1. Title: Wine Quality 
+
+2. Sources
+   Created by: Paulo Cortez (Univ. Minho), Antonio Cerdeira, Fernando Almeida, Telmo Matos and Jose Reis (CVRVV) @ 2009
+   
+3. Past Usage:
+
+  P. Cortez, A. Cerdeira, F. Almeida, T. Matos and J. Reis. 
+  Modeling wine preferences by data mining from physicochemical properties.
+  In Decision Support Systems, Elsevier, 47(4):547-553. ISSN: 0167-9236.
+
+  In the above reference, two datasets were created, using red and white wine samples.
+  The inputs include objective tests (e.g. PH values) and the output is based on sensory data
+  (median of at least 3 evaluations made by wine experts). Each expert graded the wine quality 
+  between 0 (very bad) and 10 (very excellent). Several data mining methods were applied to model
+  these datasets under a regression approach. The support vector machine model achieved the
+  best results. Several metrics were computed: MAD, confusion matrix for a fixed error tolerance (T),
+  etc. Also, we plot the relative importances of the input variables (as measured by a sensitivity
+  analysis procedure).
+ 
+4. Relevant Information:
+
+   The two datasets are related to red and white variants of the Portuguese "Vinho Verde" wine.
+   For more details, consult: http://www.vinhoverde.pt/en/ or the reference [Cortez et al., 2009].
+   Due to privacy and logistic issues, only physicochemical (inputs) and sensory (the output) variables 
+   are available (e.g. there is no data about grape types, wine brand, wine selling price, etc.).
+
+   These datasets can be viewed as classification or regression tasks.
+   The classes are ordered and not balanced (e.g. there are munch more normal wines than
+   excellent or poor ones). Outlier detection algorithms could be used to detect the few excellent
+   or poor wines. Also, we are not sure if all input variables are relevant. So
+   it could be interesting to test feature selection methods. 
+
+5. Number of Instances: red wine - 1599; white wine - 4898. 
+
+6. Number of Attributes: 11 + output attribute
+  
+   Note: several of the attributes may be correlated, thus it makes sense to apply some sort of
+   feature selection.
+
+7. Attribute information:
+
+   For more information, read [Cortez et al., 2009].
+
+   Input variables (based on physicochemical tests):
+   1 - fixed acidity
+   2 - volatile acidity
+   3 - citric acid
+   4 - residual sugar
+   5 - chlorides
+   6 - free sulfur dioxide
+   7 - total sulfur dioxide
+   8 - density
+   9 - pH
+   10 - sulphates
+   11 - alcohol
+   Output variable (based on sensory data): 
+   12 - quality (score between 0 and 10)
+
+8. Missing Attribute Values: None

subjects/ai/pandas/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+# Pandas
+
+The goal of this day is to understand practical usage of **Pandas**.
+As **Pandas** in intensively used in Data Science, other days of the piscine will be dedicated to it.
+
+Not only is the **Pandas** library a central component of the data science toolkit but it is used in conjunction with other libraries in that collection.
+
+**Pandas** is built on top of the NumPy package, meaning a lot of the structure of NumPy is used or replicated in **Pandas**. Data in **Pandas** is often used to feed statistical analysis in SciPy, plotting functions from Matplotlib, and machine learning algorithms in Scikit-learn.
+
+Most of the topics we will cover today are explained and describes with examples in the first resource. The number of exercises is low on purpose: Take the time to understand the chapter 5 of the resource, even if there are 40 pages.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercice 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Your first DataFrame
+- Exercise 2: Electric power consumption
+- Exercise 3: E-commerce purchases
+- Exercise 4: Handling missing values
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of Pandas I used to do the exercises: 1.0.1_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### Resources
+
+- If I had to give you one resource it would be this one:
+
+https://bedford-computing.co.uk/learning/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Python-for-Data-Analysis.pdf
+
+It contains ALL you need to know about Pandas.
+
+- Pandas documentation:
+
+  - https://pandas.pydata.org/docs/
+
+  - https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/
+
+  - https://pandas.pydata.org/Pandas_Cheat_Sheet.pdf
+
+  - https://www.learndatasci.com/tutorials/python-pandas-tutorial-complete-introduction-for-beginners/
+
+  - https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/03.04-missing-values.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy` and `jupyter`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Your first DataFrame
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to create basic Pandas objects.
+
+1. Create a DataFrame as below this using two ways:
+
+   - From a NumPy array
+   - From a Pandas Series
+
+   |     | color | list    | number |
+   | --: | :---- | :------ | -----: |
+   |   1 | Blue  | [1, 2]  |    1.1 |
+   |   3 | Red   | [3, 4]  |    2.2 |
+   |   5 | Pink  | [5, 6]  |    3.3 |
+   |   7 | Grey  | [7, 8]  |    4.4 |
+   |   9 | Black | [9, 10] |    5.5 |
+
+2. Print the types for every columns and the types of the first value of every columns
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Electric power consumption
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to manipulate real data with Pandas.
+
+The data set used is [**Individual household electric power consumption**](https://assets.01-edu.org/ai-branch/piscine-ai/household_power_consumption.txt)
+
+1. Delete the columns `Time`, `Sub_metering_2` and `Sub_metering_3`
+2. Set `Date` as index
+3. Create a function that takes as input the DataFrame with the data set and returns a DataFrame with updated types:
+
+   ```python
+       def update_types(df):
+           #TODO
+           return df
+   ```
+
+4. Use `describe` to have an overview on the data set
+5. Delete the rows with missing values
+6. Modify `Sub_metering_1` by adding 1 to it and multiplying the total by 0.06. If x is a row the output is: (x+1)\*0.06
+7. Select all the rows for which the Date is greater or equal than 2008-12-27 and `Voltage` is greater or equal than 242
+8. Print the 88888th row.
+9. What is the date for which the `Global_active_power` is maximal ?
+10. Sort the first three columns by descending order of `Global_active_power` and ascending order of `Voltage`.
+11. Compute the daily average of `Global_active_power`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: E-commerce purchases
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to manipulate real data with Pandas. This exercise is less guided since the exercise 2 should have given you a nice introduction.
+
+The data set used is **E-commerce purchases**.
+
+Questions:
+
+1. How many rows and columns are there?
+2. What is the average Purchase Price?
+3. What were the highest and lowest purchase prices?
+4. How many people have English `'en'` as their Language of choice on the website?
+5. How many people have the job title of `"Lawyer"` ?
+6. How many people made the purchase during the `AM` and how many people made the purchase during `PM` ?
+7. What are the 5 most common Job Titles?
+8. Someone made a purchase that came from Lot: `"90 WT"` , what was the Purchase Price for this transaction?
+9. What is the email of the person with the following Credit Card Number: `4926535242672853`
+10. How many people have American Express as their Credit Card Provider and made a purchase above `$95` ?
+11. How many people have a credit card that expires in `2025`?
+12. What are the top 5 most popular email providers/hosts (e.g. gmail.com, yahoo.com, etc...)
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Handling missing values
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to handle missing values. In the previous exercise we used the first techniques: filter out the missing values. We were lucky because the proportion of missing values was low. But in some cases, dropping the missing values is not possible because the filtered data set would be too small.
+
+This article explains the different types of missing data and how they should be handled.
+
+https://towardsdatascience.com/data-cleaning-with-python-and-pandas-detecting-missing-values-3e9c6ebcf78b
+
+"**It’s important to understand these different types of missing data from a statistics point of view. The type of missing data will influence how you deal with filling in the missing values.**"
+
+- Preliminary: Drop the `flower` column
+
+1. Fill the missing values with a different "strategy" for each column:
+
+   `sepal_length` -> `mean`
+
+   `sepal_width` -> `median`
+
+   `petal_length`, `petal_width` -> `0`
+
+2. Fill the missing values using the median of the associated column using `fillna`.
+
+- Bonus questions:
+  - Filling the missing values by 0 or the mean of the associated column is common in Data Science. In that case, explain why filling the missing values with 0 or the mean is a bad idea.
+  - Find a special row ;-) .

subjects/ai/pandas/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,230 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy` and `import pandas` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Your first DataFrame
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the DataFrame created is the same as the "model" DataFrame. Check that the index is not 1,2,3,4,5.
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is accepted if the columns' types are as below and if the types of the first value of the columns are as below:
+
+```console
+    <class 'pandas.core.series.Series'>
+    <class 'pandas.core.series.Series'>
+    <class 'pandas.core.series.Series'>
+```
+
+```console
+        <class 'str'>
+        <class 'list'>
+        <class 'float'>
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Electric power consumption
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if `drop` is used with `axis=1`.`inplace=True` may be useful to avoid to affect the result to a variable. A solution that could be accepted too (even if it's not a solution I recommend) is `del`.
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is accepted if the DataFrame returns the output below. If the type of the index is not `dtype='datetime64[ns]'` the solution is not accepted. I recommend to use `set_index` with `inplace=True` to do so.
+
+```python
+        Input: df.head().index
+
+        Output:
+
+        DatetimeIndex(['2006-12-16', '2006-12-16','2006-12-16', '2006-12-16','2006-12-16'],
+        dtype='datetime64[ns]', name='Date', freq=None)
+```
+
+##### The solution of question 3 is accepted if all the types are `float64` as below. The preferred solution is `pd.to_numeric` with `coerce=True`.
+
+```python
+        Input: df.dtypes
+
+        Output:
+
+            Global_active_power      float64
+            Global_reactive_power    float64
+            Voltage                  float64
+            Global_intensity         float64
+            Sub_metering_1           float64
+            dtype: object
+
+```
+
+##### The solution of question 4 is accepted if you use `df.describe()`.
+
+##### The solution of question 5 is accepted if `dropna` is used and if the number of missing values is equal to 0. It is important to notice that 25979 rows contain missing values (for a total of 129895). `df.isna().sum()` allows to check the number of missing values and `df.dropna()` with `inplace=True` allows to remove the rows with missing values.
+
+##### The solution of question 6 is accepted if one of the two approaches below were used:
+
+```python
+        #solution 1
+        df.loc[:,'A'] = (df['A'] + 1) * 0.06
+
+        #solution 2
+        df.loc[:,'A'] = df.loc[:,'A'].apply(lambda x: (x+1)*0.06)
+
+```
+
+    You may wonder `df.loc[:,'A']` is required and if `df['A'] = ...` works too. **The answer is no**. This is important in Pandas. Depending on the version of Pandas, it may return a warning. The reason is that you are affecting a value to a **copy** of the DataFrame and not in the DataFrame.
+    More details: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/20625582/how-to-deal-with-settingwithcopywarning-in-pandas
+
+##### The solution of question 7 is accepted as long as the output of `print(filtered_df.head().to_markdown())` is as below and if the number of rows is equal to **449667**.
+
+    | Date                |   Global_active_power |   Global_reactive_power |
+    |:--------------------|----------------------:|------------------------:|
+    | 2008-12-27 00:00:00 |                 0.996 |                   0.066 |
+    | 2008-12-27 00:00:00 |                 1.076 |                   0.162 |
+    | 2008-12-27 00:00:00 |                 1.064 |                   0.172 |
+    | 2008-12-27 00:00:00 |                 1.07  |                   0.174 |
+    | 2008-12-27 00:00:00 |                 0.804 |                   0.184 |
+
+##### The solution of question 8 is accepted if the output is:
+
+```console
+        Global_active_power        0.254
+        Global_reactive_power      0.000
+        Voltage                  238.350
+        Global_intensity           1.200
+        Sub_metering_1             0.000
+        Name: 2007-02-16 00:00:00, dtype: float64
+
+```
+
+##### The solution of question 9 if the output is `Timestamp('2009-02-22 00:00:00')`.
+
+##### The solution of question 10 if the output of `print(sorted_df.tail().to_markdown())` is:
+
+    | Date                |   Global_active_power |   Global_reactive_power |   Voltage |
+    |:--------------------|----------------------:|------------------------:|----------:|
+    | 2008-08-28 00:00:00 |                 0.076 |                       0 |    234.88 |
+    | 2008-08-28 00:00:00 |                 0.076 |                       0 |    235.18 |
+    | 2008-08-28 00:00:00 |                 0.076 |                       0 |    235.4  |
+    | 2008-08-28 00:00:00 |                 0.076 |                       0 |    235.64 |
+    | 2008-12-08 00:00:00 |                 0.076 |                       0 |    236.5  |
+
+##### The solution of question 11 is accepted if the output is as below. The solution is based on `groupby` which creates groups based on the index `Date` and aggregates the groups using the `mean`.
+
+```console
+    Date
+    2006-12-16    3.053475
+    2006-12-17    2.354486
+    2006-12-18    1.530435
+    2006-12-19    1.157079
+    2006-12-20    1.545658
+                    ...
+    2010-12-07    0.770538
+    2010-12-08    0.367846
+    2010-12-09    1.119508
+    2010-12-10    1.097008
+    2010-12-11    1.275571
+    Name: Global_active_power, Length: 1433, dtype: float64
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: E-commerce purchases
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### To validate this exercise all answers should return the expected numerical value given in the correction AND uses Pandas. For example using NumPy to compute the mean doesn't respect the philosophy of the exercise which is to use Pandas.
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if it contains **10000 entries** and **14 columns**. There many solutions based on: shape, info, describe.
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is accepted if the answer is **50.34730200000025**.
+
+    Even if `np.mean` gives the solution, `df['Purchase Price'].mean()` is preferred
+
+##### The solution of question 3 is accepted if the min is `0`and the max is `99.989999999999995`
+
+##### The solution of question 4 is accepted if the answer is **1098**
+
+##### The solution of question 5 is accepted if the answer is **30**
+
+##### The solution of question 6 is accepted if the are `4932` people that made the purchase during the `AM` and `5068` people that made the purchase during `PM`. There many ways to the solution but the goal of this question was to make you use `value_counts`
+
+##### The solution of question 7 is accepted if the answer is as below. There many ways to the solution but the goal of this question was to use `value_counts`
+
+    Interior and spatial designer    31
+
+    Lawyer                           30
+
+    Social researcher                28
+
+    Purchasing manager               27
+
+    Designer, jewellery              27
+
+##### The solution of question 8 is accepted if the purchase price is **75.1**
+
+##### The solution of question 9 is accepted if the email address is **bondellen@williams-garza.com**
+
+##### The solution of question 10 is accepted if the answer is **39**. The preferred solution is based on this: `df[(df['A'] == X) & (df['B'] > Y)]`
+
+##### The solution of question 11 is accepted if the answer is **1033**. The preferred solution is based on the usage of `apply` on a `lambda` function that slices the string that contains the expiration date.
+
+##### The solution of question 12 is accepted if the answer is as below. The preferred solution is based on the usage of `apply` on a `lambda` function that slices the string that contains the email. The `lambda` function uses `split` to split the string on `@`. Finally, `value_counts` is used to count the occurrences.
+
+    - hotmail.com     1638
+    - yahoo.com       1616
+    - gmail.com       1605
+    - smith.com         42
+    - williams.com      37
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Handling missing values
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated (except the bonus question)
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the two steps are implemented in that order. First, convert the numerical columns to `float` and then fill the missing values. The first step may involve `pd.to_numeric(df.loc[:,col], errors='coerce')`. The second step is validated if you eliminated all missing values. However there are many possibilities to fill the missing values. Here is one of them:
+
+    example:
+
+```python
+    df.fillna({0:df.sepal_length.mean(),
+    2:df.sepal_width.median(),
+    3:0,
+    4:0})
+```
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is accepted if the solution is `df.loc[:,col].fillna(df[col].median())`.
+
+##### The solution of bonus question is accepted if you find out this answer: Once we filled the missing values as suggested in the first question, `df.describe()` returns this interesting summary. We notice that the mean is way higher than the median. It means that there are maybe some outliers in the data. The quantile 75 and the max confirm that: 75% of the flowers have a sepal length smaller than 6.4 cm, but the max is 6900 cm. If you check on the internet you realise this small flower can't be that big. The outliers have a major impact on the mean which equals to 56.9. Filling this value for the missing value is not correct since it doesn't correspond to the real size of this flower. That is why in that case the best strategy to fill the missing values is the median. The truth is that I modified the data set ! But real data sets ALWAYS contains outliers. Always think about the meaning of the data transformation ! If you fill the missing values by zero, it means that you consider that the length or width of some flowers may be 0. It doesn't make sense.
+
+|       | sepal_length | sepal_width | petal_length | petal_width |
+| :---- | -----------: | ----------: | -----------: | ----------: |
+| count |          146 |         141 |          120 |         147 |
+| mean  |      56.9075 |     52.6255 |      15.5292 |     12.0265 |
+| std   |      572.222 |     417.127 |       127.46 |     131.873 |
+| min   |         -4.4 |        -3.6 |         -4.8 |        -2.5 |
+| 25%   |          5.1 |         2.8 |        2.725 |         0.3 |
+| 50%   |         5.75 |           3 |          4.5 |         1.3 |
+| 75%   |          6.4 |         3.3 |          5.1 |         1.8 |
+| max   |         6900 |        3809 |         1400 |        1600 |
+
+##### The solution of bonus question is accepted if the presence of negative values and huge values have been detected. A good data scientist always check abnormal values in the dataset. **YOU SHOULD ALWAYS TRY TO UNDERSTAND YOUR DATA**. Print the row with index 122 ;-) This week, we will have the opportunity to focus on the data pre-processing to understand how the outliers can be handled.

subjects/ai/pandas/data/iris.csv

@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+,sepal_length,sepal_width,petal_length,petal_width, flower
+0,5.1,3.5,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+1,4.9,3.0,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+2,4.7,3.2,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+3,4.6,3.1,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4,5.0,-3.6,-1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5,5.4,3.9,1.7,0.4,Iris-setosa
+6,4.6,3.4,1.4,0.3,Iris-setosa
+7,5.0,3.4,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+8,-4.4,2.9,1400.0,0.2,Iris-setosa
+9,4.9,3.1,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+10,5.4,3.7,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+11,4.8,3.4,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+12,4.8,3.0,,0.1,Iris-setosa
+13,4.3,3.0,,0.1,Iris-setosa
+14,5.8,4.0,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+15,5.7,4.4,,0.4,Iris-setosa
+16,5.4,3.9,,0.4,Iris-setosa
+17,5.1,3.5,,0.3,Iris-setosa
+18,5.7,3.8,,0.3,Iris-setosa
+19,5.1,3.8,,0.3,Iris-setosa
+20,5.4,3.4,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+21,5.1,3.7,,0.4,Iris-setosa
+22,4.6,3.6,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+23,5.1,3.3,,0.5,Iris-setosa
+24,4.8,3.4,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+25,5.0,-3.0,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+26,5.0,3.4,,0.4,Iris-setosa
+27,5.2,3.5,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+28,5.2,3.4,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+29,4.7,3.2,,0.2,Iris-setosa
+30,4.8,3.1,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+31,5.4,3.4,1.5,0.4,Iris-setosa
+32,5.2,4.1,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+33,5.5,4.2,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+34,4.9,3.1,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+35,5.0,3.2,1.2,0.2,Iris-setosa
+36,5.5,3.5,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+37,4.9,,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+38,4.4,3.0,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+39,5.1,3.4,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+40,5.0,3.5,1.3,0.3,Iris-setosa
+41,4.5,2.3,1.3,0.3,Iris-setosa
+42,4.4,3.2,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+43,5.0,3.5,1.6,0.6,Iris-setosa
+44,5.1,3.8,1.9,0.4,Iris-setosa
+45,4.8,3.0,1.4,0.3,Iris-setosa
+46,5.1,3809.0,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+47,4.6,3.2,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+48,5.3,3.7,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+49,5.0,3.3,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+50,7.0,3.2,4.7,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+51,6.4,3200.0,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+52,6.9,3.1,4.9,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+53,5.5,2.3,4.0,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+54,6.5,2.8,4.6,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+55,5.7,2.8,4.5,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+56,6.3,3.3,4.7,1600.0,Iris-versicolor
+57,4.9,2.4,3.3,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+58,6.6,2.9,4.6,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+59,5.2,2.7,3.9,,Iris-versicolor
+60,5.0,2.0,3.5,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+61,5.9,3.0,4.2,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+62,6.0,2.2,4.0,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+63,6.1,2.9,4.7,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+64,5.6,2.9,3.6,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+65,6.7,3.1,4.4,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+66,5.6,3.0,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+67,5.8,2.7,4.1,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+68,6.2,2.2,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+69,5.6,2.5,3.9,1.1,Iris-versicolor
+70,5.9,3.2,4.8,1.8,Iris-versicolor
+71,6.1,2.8,4.0,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+72,6.3,2.5,4.9,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+73,6.1,2.8,4.7,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+74,6.4,2.9,4.3,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+75,6.6,3.0,4.4,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+76,6.8,2.8,4.8,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+77,6.7,3.0,5.0,1.7,Iris-versicolor
+78,6.0,2.9,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+79,5.7,2.6,3.5,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+80,5.5,2.4,3.8,1.1,Iris-versicolor
+81,5.5,2.4,3.7,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+82,5.8,2.7,3.9,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+83,6.0,2.7,5.1,1.6,Iris-versicolor
+84,5.4,3.0,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+85,6.0,3.4,4.5,1.6,Iris-versicolor
+86,6.7,3.1,4.7,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+87,6.3,2.3,4.4,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+88,5.6,3.0,4.1,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+89,5.5,2.5,4.0,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+90,5.5,2.6,4.4,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+91,6.1,3.0,4.6,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+92,5.8,2.6,4.0,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+93,5.0,2.3,3.3,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+94,5.6,2.7,4.2,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+95,5.7,3.0,4.2,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+96,5.7,2.9,4.2,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+97,6.2,2.9,4.3,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+98,5.1,2.5,3.0,1.1,Iris-versicolor
+99,5.7,2.8,,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+100,,3.3,,2.5,Iris-virginica
+101,5.8,2.7,,1.9,Iris-virginica
+102,7.1,3.0,,2.1,Iris-virginica
+103,6.3,2.9,,1.8,Iris-virginica
+104,6.5,3.0,,2.2,Iris-virginica
+105,7.6,3.0,6.6,2.1,Iris-virginica
+106,4.9,2.5,4.5,1.7,Iris-virginica
+107,7.3,2.9,6.3,1.8,Iris-virginica
+108,6.7,2.5,5.8,1.8,Iris-virginica
+109,7.2,3.6,6.1,2.5,Iris-virginica
+110,6.5,3.2,5.1,2.0,Iris-virginica
+111,6.4,2.7,5.3,1.9,Iris-virginica
+112,6.8,3.0,5.5,2.1,Iris-virginica
+113,5.7,2.5,5.0,2.0,Iris-virginica
+114,5.8,,5.1,2.4,Iris-virginica
+115,6.4,,5.3,2.3,Iris-virginica
+116,6.5,,5.5,1.8,Iris-virginica
+117,7.7,,6.7,2.2,Iris-virginica
+118,7.7,,,2.3,Iris-virginica
+119,6.0,,5.0,1.5,Iris-virginica
+120,6.9,,5.7,2.3,Iris-virginica
+121,5.6,2.8,4.9,2.0,Iris-virginica
+122,always,check,the,data,!!!!!!!!
+123,6.3,2.7,4.9,1.8,Iris-virginica
+124,6.7,3.3,5.7,2.1,Iris-virginica
+125,7.2,3.2,6.0,1.8,Iris-virginica
+126,6.2,2.8,-4.8,1.8,Iris-virginica
+127,,3.0,4.9,1.8,Iris-virginica
+128,6.4,2.8,5.6,2.1,Iris-virginica
+129,7.2,3.0,5.8,1.6,Iris-virginica
+130,7.4,2.8,6.1,1.9,Iris-virginica
+131,7.9,3.8,6.4,2.0,Iris-virginica
+132,6.-4,2.8,5.6,2.2,Iris-virginica
+133,6.3,2.8,,1.5,Iris-virginica
+134,6.1,2.6,5.6,1.4,Iris-virginica
+135,7.7,3.0,6.1,2.3,Iris-virginica
+136,6.3,3.4,5.6,2.4,Iris-virginica
+137,6.4,3.1,5.5,1.8,Iris-virginica
+138,6.0,3.0,4.8,1.8,Iris-virginica
+139,6900,3.1,5.4,2.1,Iris-virginica
+140,6.7,3.1,,2.4,Iris-virginica
+141,6.9,3.1,5.1,2.3,Iris-virginica
+142,580,2.7,5.1,,Iris-virginica
+143,6.8,3.2,5.9,2.3,Iris-virginica
+144,6.7,3.3,5.7,-2.5,Iris-virginica
+145,6.7,3.0,5.2,2.3,Iris-virginica
+146,6.3,2.5,5.0,1.9,Iris-virginica
+147,6.5,3.0,5.2,2.0,Iris-virginica
+148,6.2,3.4,5.4,2.3,Iris-virginica
+149,5.9,3.0,5.1,1.8,Iris-virginica

subjects/ai/pandas/data/iris.data

@@ -0,0 +1,152 @@
+sepal_length,sepal_width,petal_length,petal_width, flower
+5.1,3.5,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.9,3.0,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.7,3.2,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.6,3.1,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.0,-3.6,-1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.4,3.9,1.7,0.4,Iris-setosa
+4.6,3.4,1.4,0.3,Iris-setosa
+5.0,3.4,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+-4.4,2.9,1400,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.9,3.1,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+5.4,3.7,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.8,3.4,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.8,3.0,1.4,0.1,Iris-setosa
+4.3,3.0,1.1,0.1,Iris-setosa
+5.8,4.0,1.2,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.7,4.4,1500,0.4,Iris-setosa
+5.4,3.9,1.3,0.4,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3.5,1.4,0.3,Iris-setosa
+5.7,3.8,1.7,0.3,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3.8,1.5,0.3,Iris-setosa
+5.4,3.4,-1.7,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3.7,1.5,0.4,Iris-setosa
+4.6,3.6,1.0,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3.3,1.7,0.5,Iris-setosa
+4.8,3.4,1.9,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.0,-3.0,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.0,3.4,1.6,0.4,Iris-setosa
+5.2,3.5,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.2,3.4,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.7,3.2,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.8,3.1,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.4,3.4,1.5,0.4,Iris-setosa
+5.2,4.1,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+5.5,4.2,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.9,3.1,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+5.0,3.2,1.2,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.5,3.5,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.9,,1.5,0.1,Iris-setosa
+4.4,3.0,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3.4,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.0,"3.5",1.3,0.3,Iris-setosa
+4.5,2.3,1.3,0.3,Iris-setosa
+4.4,3.2,1.3,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.0,3.5,1.6,0.6,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3.8,1.9,0.4,Iris-setosa
+4.8,3.0,1.4,0.3,Iris-setosa
+5.1,3809,1.6,0.2,Iris-setosa
+4.6,3.2,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.3,3.7,1.5,0.2,Iris-setosa
+5.0,3.3,1.4,0.2,Iris-setosa
+7.0,3.2,4.7,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+6.4,3200,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+6.9,3.1,4.9,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+5.5,2.3,4.0,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.5,2.8,4.6,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+5.7,2.8,4.5,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.3,3.3,4.7,1600,Iris-versicolor
+4.9,2.4,3.3,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+6.6,2.9,4.6,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+5.2,2.7,3.9,,Iris-versicolor
+5.0,2.0,3.5,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+5.9,3.0,4.2,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+6.0,2.2,4.0,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+6.1,2.9,4.7,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+5.6,2.9,3.6,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.7,3.1,4.4,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+5.6,3.0,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+5.8,2.7,4.1,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+6.2,2.2,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+5.6,2.5,3.9,1.1,Iris-versicolor
+5.9,3.2,4.8,1.8,Iris-versicolor
+6.1,2.8,4.0,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.3,2.5,4.9,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+6.1,2.8,4.7,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+6.4,2.9,4.3,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.6,3.0,4.4,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+6.8,2.8,4.8,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+6.7,3.0,5.0,1.7,Iris-versicolor
+6.0,2.9,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+5.7,2.6,3.5,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+5.5,2.4,3.8,1.1,Iris-versicolor
+5.5,2.4,3.7,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+5.8,2.7,3.9,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+6.0,2.7,5.1,1.6,Iris-versicolor
+5.4,3.0,4.5,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+6.0,3.4,4.5,1.6,Iris-versicolor
+6.7,3.1,4.7,1.5,Iris-versicolor
+6.3,2.3,4.4,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+5.6,3.0,4.1,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+5.5,2.5,4.0,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+5.5,2.6,4.4,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+6.1,3.0,4.6,1.4,Iris-versicolor
+5.8,2.6,4.0,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+5.0,2.3,3.3,1.0,Iris-versicolor
+5.6,2.7,4.2,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+5.7,3.0,4.2,1.2,Iris-versicolor
+5.7,2.9,4.2,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.2,2.9,4.3,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+5.1,2.5,3.0,1.1,Iris-versicolor
+5.7,2.8,4.1,1.3,Iris-versicolor
+6.3,3.3,6.0,2.5,Iris-virginica
+5.8,2.7,5.1,1.9,Iris-virginica
+7.1,3.0,5.9,2.1,Iris-virginica
+6.3,2.9,5.6,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.5,3.0,5.8,2.2,Iris-virginica
+7.6,3.0,6.6,2.1,Iris-virginica
+4.9,2.5,4.5,1.7,Iris-virginica
+7.3,2.9,6.3,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.7,2.5,5.8,1.8,Iris-virginica
+7.2,3.6,6.1,2.5,Iris-virginica
+6.5,3.2,5.1,2.0,Iris-virginica
+6.4,2.7,5.3,1.9,Iris-virginica
+6.8,3.0,5.5,2.1,Iris-virginica
+5.7,2.5,5.0,2.0,Iris-virginica
+5.8,2.8,5.1,2.4,Iris-virginica
+6.4,3.2,5.3,2.3,Iris-virginica
+6.5,3.0,5.5,1.8,Iris-virginica
+7.7,3.8,6.7,2.2,Iris-virginica
+7.7,2.6,6.9,2.3,Iris-virginica
+6.0,2.2,5.0,1.5,Iris-virginica
+6.9,3.2,5.7,2.3,Iris-virginica
+5.6,2.8,4.9,2.0,Iris-virginica
+7.7,2.8,6.7,2.0,Iris-virginica
+6.3,2.7,4.9,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.7,3.3,5.7,2.1,Iris-virginica
+7.2,3.2,6.0,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.2,2.8,-4.8,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.1,3.0,4.9,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.4,2.8,5.6,2.1,Iris-virginica
+7.2,3.0,5.8,1.6,Iris-virginica
+7.4,2.8,6.1,1.9,Iris-virginica
+7.9,3.8,6.4,2.0,Iris-virginica
+6.-4,2.8,5.6,2.2,Iris-virginica
+6.3,2.8,"5.1",1.5,Iris-virginica
+6.1,2.6,5.6,1.4,Iris-virginica
+7.7,3.0,6.1,2.3,Iris-virginica
+6.3,3.4,5.6,2.4,Iris-virginica
+6.4,3.1,5.5,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6.0,3.0,4.8,1.8,Iris-virginica
+6900,3.1,5.4,2.1,Iris-virginica
+6.7,3.1,5.6,2.4,Iris-virginica
+6.9,3.1,5.1,2.3,Iris-virginica
+580,2.7,5.1,1.9,Iris-virginica
+6.8,3.2,5.9,2.3,Iris-virginica
+6.7,3.3,5.7,-2.5,Iris-virginica
+6.7,3.0,5.2,2.3,Iris-virginica
+6.3,2.5,5.0,1.9,Iris-virginica
+6.5,3.0,5.2,2.0,Iris-virginica
+6.2,3.4,5.4,2.3,Iris-virginica
+5.9,3.0,5.1,1.8,Iris-virginica
+

subjects/ai/sp500-strategies/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+# Financial strategies on the SP500
+
+In this project we will apply machine to finance. You are a Quant/Data Scientist and your goal is to create a financial strategy based on a signal outputted by a machine learning model that overperforms the [SP500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%26P_500).
+
+The Standard & Poors 500 Index is a collection of stocks intended to reflect the overall return characteristics of the stock market as a whole. The stocks that make up the S&P 500 are selected by market capitalization, liquidity, and industry. Companies to be included in the S&P are selected by the S&P 500 Index Committee, which consists of a group of analysts employed by Standard & Poor's.
+The S&P 500 Index originally began in 1926 as the "composite index" comprised of only 90 stocks. According to historical records, the average annual return since its inception in 1926 through 2018 is approximately 10%–11%.The average annual return since adopting 500 stocks into the index in 1957 through 2018 is roughly 8%.
+As a Quant Researcher, you may beat the SP500 one year or few years. The real challenge though is to beat the SP500 consistently over decades. That's what most hedge funds in the world are trying to do.
+
+The project is divided in parts:
+
+- **Data processing and feature engineering**: Build a dataset: insightful features and the target
+- **Machine Learning pipeline**: Train machine learning models on the dataset, select the best model and generate the machine learning signal.
+- **Strategy backtesting**: Generate a strategy from the Machine Learning model output and backtest the strategy. As a reminder, the idea here is to see what would have performed the strategy if you would have invested.
+
+### Deliverables
+
+Do not forget to check the ressources of W1D5 and espcially W1D5E4.
+
+### Data processing and features engineering
+
+The first file contains SP500 index data (OHLC: 4 time-series) and the other file contains the OHLCV data on the SP500 contituents.
+
+- Split the data in train and test. The test set should set from **2017** .
+- Your first priority is to build a dataset without leakage !!! NO LEAKAGE !!!
+
+Note: Financial data can be complex and tricky to analyse for a lot of reasons. In order to focus on Time Series forecasting, the project gives access to a "simplified" financial dataset. For instance, we consider the composition of the SP500 remains similar over time which is not true and which introduces a "survivor bias". Plus, the data during covid-19 was removed because it may have a significant impact on the backtesting.
+
+**"No leakage" [intro](<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(machine_learning)>) and small guide:**
+We assume it is day D and we want to take a position on the next h days on the next day. The position starts on day D+1 (included). To decide wether we take a short or long position the return between day D+1 and D+2 is computed and used as a target. Finally, as features on day contain information until day D 11:59pm, target need to be shifted. As a result, the final dataframe schema is:
+
+| Index   |          Features          |           Target |
+| ------- | :------------------------: | ---------------: |
+| Day D-1 | Features until D-1 23:59pm |   return(D, D+1) |
+| Day D   |  Features until D 23:59pm  | return(D+1, D+2) |
+| Day D+1 | Features until D+1 23:59pm | return(D+2, D+3) |
+
+**Note: This table is simplified, the index of your DataFrame is a multi-index with date and ticker.**
+
+- Features: - Bollinger - RSI - MACD
+  **Note: you can use any library to compute these features, you don't need to implement all financial features from scratch.**
+
+- Target:
+  - On day D, the target is: **sign(return(D+1, D+2))**
+
+> Remark: The target used is the return computed on the price and not the price directly. There are statistical reasons for this choice - the price is not stationary. The consequence is that a machine learning model tends to overfit while training on not stationary data.
+
+### Machine learning pipeline
+
+- Cross-validation deliverables:
+  - Implements a cross validation with at least 10 folds. The train set has to be bigger than 2 years history.
+  - Two types of temporal cross-validations are required:
+    - Blocking (plot below)
+    - Time Series split (plot below)
+  - Make sure the last fold of the train set does not overlap on the test set.
+  - Make sure the folds do not contain data from the same day. The data should be split on the dates.
+  - Plot your cross validation as follow:
+
+![alt text][blocking]
+
+[blocking]: blocking_time_series_split.png "Blocking Time Series split"
+
+![alt text][timeseries]
+
+[timeseries]: Time_series_split.png "Time Series split"
+
+Once you'll have run the gridsearch on the cross validation (choose either Blocking or Time Series split), you'll select the best pipeline on the train set and save it as `selected_model.pkl` and `selected_model.txt` (pipeline hyper-parameters).
+
+**Note: You may observe that the selected model is not good after analyzing the ml metrics (ON THE TRAIN SET) and select another one. **
+
+- ML metrics and feature importances on the selected pipeline on the train set only.
+  - DataFrame with a Machine learning metrics on train et validation sets on all folds of the train set. Suggested format: columns: ML metrics (AUC, Accuracy, LogLoss), rows: folds, train set and validation set (double index). Save it as `ml_metrics_train.csv`
+  - Plot. Choose the metric you want. Suggested: AUC Save it as `metric_train.png`. The plot below shows how the plot should look like.
+  - DataFrame with top 10 important features for each fold. Save it as `top_10_feature_importance.csv`
+
+![alt text][barplot]
+
+[barplot]: metric_plot.png "Metric plot"
+
+- The signal has to be generated with the chosen cross validation: train the model on the train set of the first fold, then predict on its validation set; train the model on the train set of the second fold, then predict on its validation set, etc ... Then, concatenate the predictions on the validation sets to build the machine learning signal. **The pipeline shouldn't be trained once and predict on all data points !**
+
+**The output is a DataFrame or Series with a double index ordered with the probability the stock price for asset i increases between d+1 and d+2.**
+
+- (optional): [Train a RNN/LSTM](https://towardsdatascience.com/predicting-stock-price-with-lstm-13af86a74944). This a nice way to discover and learn about recurrent neural networks. But keep in mind that there are some new neural network architectures that seem to outperform recurrent neural networks: https://towardsdatascience.com/the-fall-of-rnn-lstm-2d1594c74ce0.
+
+### Strategy backtesting
+
+- Backtesting module deliverables. The module takes as input a machine learning signal, convert it into a financial strategy. A financial strategy DataFrame gives the amount invested at time t on asset i. The module returns the following metrics on the train set and the test set.
+  - PnL plot: save it as `strategy.png`
+    - x axis: date
+    - y axis1: PnL of the strategy at time t
+    - y axis2: PnL of the SP500 at time t
+    - Use the same scale for y axis1 and y axis2
+    - add a line that shows the separation between train set and test set
+  - Pnl
+  - Max drawdown. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/drawdown.asp
+  - (Optional): add other metrics as sharpe ratio, volatility, etc ...
+  - Create a markdown report that explains and save it as `report.md`:
+    - the features used
+    - the pipeline used
+      - imputer
+      - scaler
+      - dimension reduction
+      - model
+    - the cross-validation used
+      - length of train sets and validation sets
+      - cross-validation plot (optional)
+    - strategy chosen
+      - description
+      - PnL plot
+      - strategy metrics on the train set and test set
+
+### Example of strategies:
+
+- Long only:
+  - Binary signal:
+    0: do nothing for one day on asset i
+    1: take a long position on asset i for 1 day
+  - Weights proportional to the machine learning signals
+    - invest x on asset i for on day
+- Long and short: For those who search long short strategy on Google, don't get wrong, this has nothing to do with pair trading.
+
+  - Binary signal:
+    - -1: take a short position on asset i for 1 day
+    - 1: take a long position on asset i for 1 day
+  - Ternary signal:
+    - -1: take a short position on asset i for 1 day
+    - 0: do nothing for one day on asset i
+    - 1: take a long position on asset i for 1 day
+
+  Notes:
+
+  - Warning! When you don't invest on all stock as in the binary signal or the ternary signal, make sure that you are still investing 1$ per day!
+
+  - In order to simplify the **short position** we consider that this is the opposite of a long position. Example: I take a short one AAPL stock and the price decreases by 20$ on one day. I earn 20$.
+
+- Stock picking: Take a long position on the k best assets (from the machine learning signal) and short the k worst assets regarding the machine learning signal.
+
+Here's an example on how to convert a machine learning signal into a financial strategy:
+
+- Input:
+
+| Date    | Ticker | Machine Learning signal |
+| ------- | :----: | ----------------------: |
+| Day D-1 |  AAPL  |                    0.55 |
+| Day D-1 |   C    |                    0.36 |
+| Day D   |  AAPL  |                    0.59 |
+| Day D   |   C    |                    0.33 |
+| Day D+1 |  AAPL  |                    0.61 |
+| Day D+1 |   C    |                    0.33 |
+
+- Convert it into a binary long only strategy:
+  - Machine learning signal > 0.5
+
+| Date    | Ticker | Binary signal |
+| ------- | :----: | ------------: |
+| Day D-1 |  AAPL  |             1 |
+| Day D-1 |   C    |             0 |
+| Day D   |  AAPL  |             1 |
+| Day D   |   C    |             0 |
+| Day D+1 |  AAPL  |             1 |
+| Day D+1 |   C    |             0 |
+
+!!! BE CAREFUL !!!THIS IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT.
+
+- Multiply it with the associated return.
+
+  Don't forget the meaning of the signal on day d: it gives the return between d+1 and d+2. You should multiply the binary signal of day by the return computed between d+1 and d+2. Otherwise it's wrong because you use your signal that gives you information on d+1 and d+2 on the past or present. The strategy is leaked !
+
+**Assumption**: you have 1$ per day to invest in your strategy.
+
+### Project repository structure:
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   sp500.csv
+│
+└───results
+│   │
+|   |───cross-validation
+│   │   │   ml_metrics_train.csv
+│   │   │   metric_train.csv
+│   │   │   top_10_feature_importance.csv
+│   │   │   metric_train.png
+│   │
+|   |───selected model
+│   │   │   selected_model.pkl
+│   │   │   selected_model.txt
+│   │   │   ml_signal.csv
+│   │
+|   |───strategy
+|   |   |   strategy.png
+│   │   │   results.csv
+│   │   │   report.md
+|
+|───scripts (free format)
+│   │   features_engineering.py
+│   │   gridsearch.py
+│   │   model_selection.py
+│   │   create_signal.py
+│   │   strategy.py
+
+```
+
+Note: `features_engineering.py` can be used in `gridsearch.py`
+
+### Files for this project
+
+You can find the data required for this project in this [link]:(https://assets.01-edu.org/ai-branch/project4/project04-20221031T173034Z-001.zip)

subjects/ai/sp500-strategies/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+#### Financial strategies on the SP500
+
+This documents is the correction of the project 4. Some steps are detailed in W1D5E4.
+
+```
+project
+│   README.md
+│   environment.yml
+│
+└───data
+│   │   sp500.csv
+│
+└───results
+│   │
+|   |───cross-validation
+│   │   │   ml_metrics_train.csv
+│   │   │   metric_train.csv
+│   │   │   top_10_feature_importance.csv
+│   │   │   metric_train.png
+│   │
+|   |───selected model
+│   │   │   selected_model.pkl
+│   │   │   selected_model.txt
+│   │   │   ml_signal.csv
+│   │
+|   |───strategy
+|   |   |   strategy.png
+│   │   │   results.csv
+│   │   │   report.md
+|
+|───scripts (free format)
+│   │   features_engineering.py
+│   │   gridsearch.py
+│   │   model_selection.py
+│   │   create_signal.py
+│   │   strategy.py
+
+```
+
+###### Does the structure of the project is as below ?
+
+###### Does the readme file summurize how to run the code and explain the global approach ?
+
+###### Does the environment contain all libraries used and their versions that are necessary to run the code ?
+
+###### Do the text files explain the chosen model methodology ?
+
+##### **Data processing and feature engineering**
+
+###### Is the data splitted in a train set and test set ?
+
+###### Is the last day of the train set is D and the first day of the test set is D+n with n>0 ? Splitting without considering the time series structure is wrong.
+
+##### There is no leakage: unfortunately there's no autamated way to check if the dataset is leaked. This step is validated if the features of date d are built as follow:
+
+| Index   |          Features          |           Target |
+| ------- | :------------------------: | ---------------: |
+| Day D-1 | Features until D-1 23:59pm |   return(D, D+1) |
+| Day D   |  Features until D 23:59pm  | return(D+1, D+2) |
+| Day D+1 | Features until D+1 23:59pm | return(D+2, D+3) |
+
+###### Have the features been grouped by ticker before to compute the features ?
+
+###### - Has the target been grouped by ticker before to compute the futur returns ?
+
+##### **Machine Learning pipeline**
+
+##### Cross-Validation
+
+###### Does the CV contain at least 10 folds in total ?
+
+###### Do all train folds have more than 2y history ? If you use time series split, checking that the first fold has more than 2y history is enough.
+
+##### The last validation set of the train set doesn't overlap on the test set.
+
+##### None of the folds contain data from the same day.The split should be done on the dates.
+
+##### There's a plot showing your cross-validation. As usual, all plots should have named axis and a title.If you chose a Time Series Split the plot should look like this:
+
+![alt text][timeseries]
+
+[timeseries]: ../Time_series_split.png "Time Series split"
+
+##### Model Selection
+
+##### The test set hasn't been used to train the model and select the model.
+
+###### Is the selected model saved in the pkl file and described in a txt file ?
+
+##### Selected model
+
+##### The ml metrics computed on the train set are agregated: sum or median.
+
+###### Are the ml metrics saved in a csv file ?
+
+###### Are the top 10 important features per fold are saved in `top_10_feature_importance.csv`?
+
+###### Does `metric_train.png` show a plot similar to the one below ?
+
+_Note that, this can be done also on the test set **IF** this hasn't helped to select the pipeline. _
+
+![alt text][barplot]
+
+[barplot]: ../metric_plot.png "Metric plot"
+
+##### Machine learning signal
+
+##### **The pipeline shouldn't be trained once and predict on all data points !** As explained: The signal has to be generated with the chosen cross validation: train the model on the train set of the first fold, then predict on its validation set; train the model on the train set of the second fold, then predict on its validation set, etc ... Then, concatenate the predictions on the validation sets to build the machine learning signal.
+
+##### **Strategy backtesting**
+
+##### Convert machine learning signal into a strategy
+
+##### The transformed machine learning signal (long only, long short, binary, ternary, stock picking, proportional to probability or custom ) is multiplied by the return between d+1 and d+2. As a reminder, the signal at date d predicts wether the return between d+1 and d+2 is increasing or deacreasing. Then, the PnL of date d could be associated with date d, d+1 or d+2. This is arbitrary and should impact the value of the PnL.
+
+##### You invest the same amount of money every day. One exception: if you invest 1$ per day per stock the amount invested every day may change depending on the strategy chosen. If you take into account the different values of capital invested every day in the calculation of the PnL, the step is still validated.
+
+##### Metrics and plot
+
+###### Is the Pnl computed as: strategy \* futur_return ?
+
+###### Does the strategy give the amount invested at time t on asset i ?
+
+###### Does the plot `strategy.png` contains an x axis: date ?
+
+###### Does the plot `strategy.png` contains a y axis1: PnL of the strategy at time t ?
+
+###### Does the plot `strategy.png` contains a y axis2: PnL of the SP500 at time t ?
+
+###### Does the plot `strategy.png` use the same scale for y axis1 and y axis2 ?
+
+###### Does the plot `strategy.png` contains a vertical line that shows the separation between train set and test set ?
+
+##### Report
+
+###### Does the report detail the features used ?
+
+###### Does the report detail the pipeline used (imputer, scaler, dimension reduction and model) ?
+
+###### Does the report detail the cross-validation used (length of train sets and validation sets and if possible the cross-validation plot) ?
+
+###### Does the report detail the strategy chosen (description, PnL plot and the strategy metrics on the train set and test set) ?

subjects/ai/time-series-with-pandas/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+# Time Series with Pandas
+
+Time series data are data that are indexed by a sequence of dates or times. Today, you'll learn how to use methods built into Pandas to work with this index. You'll also learn for instance:
+
+- to resample time series to change the frequency
+- to calculate rolling and cumulative values for times series
+- to build a backtest
+
+Time series a used A LOT in finance. You'll learn to evaluate financial strategies using Pandas. It is important to keep in mind that Python is vectorized. That's why some questions constraint you to not use a for loop ;-).
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Series
+- Exercise 2: Financial data
+- Exercise 3: Multi asset returns
+- Exercise 4: Backtest
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of Pandas I used to do the exercises: 1.0.1_.
+I suggest to use the most recent one.
+
+### Resources
+
+- https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/
+
+- https://pandas.pydata.org/Pandas_Cheat_Sheet.pdf
+
+- https://www.learndatasci.com/tutorials/python-pandas-tutorial-complete-introduction-for-beginners/
+
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/different-ways-to-iterate-over-rows-in-a-pandas-dataframe-performance-comparison-dc0d5dcef8fe
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy` and `jupyter`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Series
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to manipulate time series in Pandas.
+
+1. Create a `Series` named `integer_series` from 1st January 2010 to 31 December 2020. At each date is associated the number of days since 1st January 2010. It starts with 0.
+
+2. Using Pandas, compute a 7 days moving average. This transformation smooths the time series by removing small fluctuations. **without for loop**
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Financial data
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use Pandas on Time Series an on Financial data.
+
+The data we will use is Apple stock.
+
+1. Using `Plotly` plot a Candlestick
+
+2. Aggregate the data to **last business day of each month**. The aggregation should consider the meaning of the variables. How many months are in the considered period ?
+
+3. When comparing many stocks between them the metric which is frequently used is the return of the price. The price is not a convenient metric as the prices evolve in different ranges. The return at time t is defined as
+
+- (Price(t) - Price(t-1))/ Price(t-1)
+
+Using the open price compute the **daily return**. Propose two different ways **without for loop**.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Multi asset returns
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to compute daily returns on a DataFrame that contains many assets (multi-assets).
+
+```python
+business_dates = pd.bdate_range('2021-01-01', '2021-12-31')
+
+#generate tickers
+tickers = ['AAPL', 'FB', 'GE', 'AMZN', 'DAI']
+
+#create indexs
+index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([business_dates, tickers], names=['Date', 'Ticker'])
+
+# create DFs
+market_data = pd.DataFrame(index=index,
+                        data=np.random.randn(len(index), 1),
+                        columns=['Price'])
+```
+
+1. **Without using a for loop**, compute the daily returns (return(d) = (price(d)-price(d-1))/price(d-1)) for all the companies and returns a DataFrame as:
+
+| Date                | ('Price', 'AAPL') | ('Price', 'AMZN') | ('Price', 'DAI') | ('Price', 'FB') | ('Price', 'GE') |
+| :------------------ | ----------------: | ----------------: | ---------------: | --------------: | --------------: |
+| 2021-01-01 00:00:00 |               nan |               nan |              nan |             nan |             nan |
+| 2021-01-04 00:00:00 |           1.01793 |         0.0512955 |          3.84709 |       -0.503488 |         0.33529 |
+| 2021-01-05 00:00:00 |         -0.222884 |          -1.64623 |         -0.71817 |         -5.5036 |        -4.15882 |
+
+Note: The data is generated randomly, the values you may have a different results. But, this shows the expected DataFrame structure.
+
+`Hint use groupby`
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Backtest
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to perform a backtest in Pandas. A backtest is a tool that allows you to know how a strategy would have performed retrospectively using historical data. In this exercise we will focus on the backtesting tool and not on how to build the best strategy.
+
+We will backtest a **long only** strategy on Apple Inc. Long only means that we only consider buying the stock. The input signal at date d says if the close price will increase at d+1. We assume that the input signal is available before the market closes.
+
+1. Drop the rows with missing values and compute the daily futur return on the Apple stock (`AAPL.csv`) on the adjusted close price. The daily futur return means: **Return(t) = (Price(t+1) - Price(t))/Price(t)**.
+   There are some events as splits or dividents that artificially change the price of the stock. That is why the close price is adjusted to avoid to have outliers in the price data.
+
+2. Create a Series that contains a random boolean array with **p=0.5**
+
+   ```console
+   Here an example of the expected time series
+   2010-01-01    1
+   2010-01-02    0
+   2010-01-03    0
+   2010-01-04    1
+   2010-01-05    0
+   Freq: D, Name: long_only_signal, dtype: int64
+   ```
+
+   - The information is this series should be interpreted this way:
+     - On the 2010-01-01 I receive `1` before the market closes meaning that, if I trust the signal, the close price of day d+1 will increase. I should buy the stock before the market closes.
+     - On the 2010-01-02 I receive `0` before the market closes meaning that,, if I trust the signal, the close price of day d+1 will not increase. I should not buy the stock.
+
+3. Backtest the signal created in Question 2. Here are some assumptions made to backtest this signal:
+
+   - When, at date d, the signal equals 1 we buy 1$ of stock just before the market closes and we sell the stock just before the market closes the next day.
+   - When, at date d, the signal equals 0, we do not buy anything.
+   - The profit is not reinvested, when invested, the amount is always 1$.
+   - Fees are not considered
+
+   **The expected output** is a **Series that gives for each day the return of the strategy. The return of the strategy is the PnL (Profit and Losses) divided by the invested amount**. The PnL for day d is:
+   `(money earned this day - money invested this day)`
+
+   Let's take the example of a 20% return for an invested amount of 1$. The PnL is `(1,2 - 1) = 0.2`. We notice that the PnL when the signal is 1 equals the daily return. The Pnl when the signal is 0 is 0.
+   By convention, we consider that the PnL of d is affected to day d and not d+1, even if the underlying return contains the information of d+1.
+
+   **The usage of for loop is not allowed**.
+
+4. Compute the return of the strategy. The return of the strategy is defined as: `(Total earned - Total invested) / Total invested`
+
+5. Now the input signal is: **always buy**. Compute the daily PnL and the total PnL. Plot the daily PnL of Q5 and of Q3 on the same plot
+
+- https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/backtesting.asp

subjects/ai/time-series-with-pandas/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,185 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy` and `import pandas` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Series
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the output of is as below. The best solution uses `pd.date_range` to generate the index and `range` to generate the integer series.
+
+```console
+    2010-01-01       0
+    2010-01-02       1
+    2010-01-03       2
+    2010-01-04       3
+    2010-01-05       4
+                ...
+    2020-12-27    4013
+    2020-12-28    4014
+    2020-12-29    4015
+    2020-12-30    4016
+    2020-12-31    4017
+    Freq: D, Name: integer_series, Length: 4018, dtype: int64
+```
+
+##### This question is validated if the output is as below. If the `NaN` values have been dropped the solution is also accepted. The solution uses `rolling().mean()`.
+
+```console
+    2010-01-01       NaN
+    2010-01-02       NaN
+    2010-01-03       NaN
+    2010-01-04       NaN
+    2010-01-05       NaN
+                ...
+    2020-12-27    4010.0
+    2020-12-28    4011.0
+    2020-12-29    4012.0
+    2020-12-30    4013.0
+    2020-12-31    4014.0
+    Freq: D, Name: integer_series, Length: 4018, dtype: float64
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Financial data
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+###### Have the missing values and data types been checked ?
+
+###### Have the string dates been converted to datetime type ?
+
+###### Have the dates been set as index ?
+
+###### Have `info` or/and `describe` been used to have a first look at the data ?
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the right columns are inserted in `Candlestick` `Plotly` object. The Candlestick is based on Open, High, Low and Close columns. The index is Date (datetime).
+
+##### This question 2 is validated if the output of `print(transformed_df.head().to_markdown())` is as below and if there are **482 months**.
+
+| Date                |     Open |    Close |      Volume |     High |      Low |
+| :------------------ | -------: | -------: | ----------: | -------: | -------: |
+| 1980-12-31 00:00:00 | 0.136075 | 0.135903 | 1.34485e+09 | 0.161272 | 0.112723 |
+| 1981-01-30 00:00:00 | 0.141768 | 0.141316 | 6.08989e+08 | 0.155134 | 0.126116 |
+| 1981-02-27 00:00:00 | 0.118215 | 0.117892 | 3.21619e+08 | 0.128906 | 0.106027 |
+| 1981-03-31 00:00:00 | 0.111328 | 0.110871 | 7.00717e+08 | 0.120536 |  0.09654 |
+| 1981-04-30 00:00:00 | 0.121811 | 0.121545 | 5.36928e+08 | 0.131138 | 0.108259 |
+
+To get this result there are two ways: `resample` and `groupby`. There are two key steps:
+
+- Find how to affect the aggregation on the last **business** day of each month. This is already implemented in Pandas and the keyword that should be used either in `resample` parameter or in `Grouper` is `BM`.
+- Choose the right aggregation function for each variable. The prices (Open, Close and Adjusted Close) should be aggregated by taking the `mean`. Low should be aggregated by taking the `minimum` because it represents the lower price of the day, so the lowest price on the month is the lowest price of the lowest prices on the day. The same logic applied to High, leads to use the `maximum` to aggregate the High. Volume should be aggregated using the `sum` because the monthly volume is equal to the sum of daily volume over the month.
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if it doesn't involve a for loop and the output is as below. The first way to do it is to compute the return without for loop is to use `pct_change`. And the second way to do it is to implement the formula given in the exercise in a vectorized way. To get the value at `t-1` the data has to be shifted with `shift`.
+
+```console
+    Date
+    1980-12-12         NaN
+    1980-12-15   -0.047823
+    1980-12-16   -0.073063
+    1980-12-17    0.019703
+    1980-12-18    0.028992
+                    ...
+    2021-01-25    0.049824
+    2021-01-26    0.003704
+    2021-01-27   -0.001184
+    2021-01-28   -0.027261
+    2021-01-29   -0.026448
+    Name: Open, Length: 10118, dtype: float64
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Multi asset returns
+
+##### This question is validated if, without having used a for loop, the outputted DataFrame shape's `(261, 5)` and the output is the same as the one return with this line of code. The DataFrame contains random data. Make sure the output and the one returned by this code is based on the same DataFrame.
+
+```python
+    market_data.loc[market_data.index.get_level_values('Ticker')=='AAPL'].sort_index().pct_change()
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Backtest
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+###### Have the missing values and data types been checked?
+
+###### Have the string dates been converted to datetime type?
+
+###### Have the dates been set as index?
+
+###### Have `info` or/and `describe` been used to have a first look at the data?
+
+**My results can be reproduced using: `np.random.seed = 2712`. Given the versions of NumPy used I do not guaranty the reproducibility of the results - that is why I also explain the steps to get to the solution.**
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the return is computed as: Return(t) = (Price(t+1) - Price(t))/Price(t) and returns this output. Note that if the index is not ordered in ascending order the futur return computed is wrong. The answer is also accepted if the returns is computed as in the exercise 2 and then shifted in the futur using `shift`, but I do not recommend this implementation as it adds missing values!
+
+```console
+        Date
+        1980-12-12   -0.052170
+        1980-12-15   -0.073403
+        1980-12-16    0.024750
+        1980-12-17    0.029000
+        1980-12-18    0.061024
+                        ...
+        2021-01-25    0.001679
+        2021-01-26   -0.007684
+        2021-01-27   -0.034985
+        2021-01-28   -0.037421
+        2021-01-29         NaN
+        Name: Daily_futur_returns, Length: 10118, dtype: float64
+```
+
+An example of solution is:
+
+```python
+        def compute_futur_return(price):
+        return (price.shift(-1) - price)/price
+
+        compute_futur_return(df['Adj Close'])
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the index of the Series is the same as the index of the DataFrame. The data of the series can be generated using `np.random.randint(0,2,len(df.index)`.
+
+##### This question is validated if the Pnl is computed as: signal \* futur_return. Both series should have the same index.
+
+```console
+    Date
+    1980-12-12   -0.052170
+    1980-12-15   -0.073403
+    1980-12-16    0.024750
+    1980-12-17    0.029000
+    1980-12-18    0.061024
+                    ...
+    2021-01-25    0.001679
+    2021-01-26   -0.007684
+    2021-01-27   -0.034985
+    2021-01-28   -0.037421
+    2021-01-29         NaN
+    Name: PnL, Length: 10119, dtype: float64
+```
+
+##### The question 4 is validated if the return of the strategy is computed as: `(Total earned - Total invested) / Total` invested. The result should be close to 0. The formula given could be simplified as `(PnLs.sum())/signal.sum()`. My return is: 0.00043546984088551553 because I invested 5147$ and I earned 5149$.
+
+##### The question is validated if the previous signal Series is replaced with 1s. Similarly as the previous question, we earned 10128$ and we invested 10118$ which leads to a return of 0.00112670194140969 (0.1%).

subjects/ai/train-and-evalute-machine-learning-models/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,300 @@
+# Train and evaluate Machine Learning models
+
+Today we will learn how to train and evaluate a machine learning model. You'll learn how tochoose the right Machine Learning metric depending on the problem you are solving and to compute it. A metric gives an idea of how good the model performs. Depending on working on a classification problem or a regression problem the metrics considered are different. It is important to understand that all metrics are just metrics, not the truth.
+
+We will focus on the most important metrics:
+
+- Regression:
+  - **R2**, **Mean Square Error**, **Mean Absolute Error**
+- Classification:
+  - **F1 score**, **accuracy**, **precision**, **recall** and **AUC scores**. Even if it not considered as a metric, the **confusion matrix** is always useful to understand the model performance.
+
+Warning: **Imbalanced data set**
+
+Let us assume we are predicting a rare event that occurs less than 2% of the time. Having a model that scores a good accuracy is easy, it doesn't have to be "smart", all it has to do is to always predict the majority class. Depending on the problem it can be disastrous. For example, working with real life data, breast cancer prediction is an imbalanced problem where predicting the majority leads to disastrous consequences. That is why metrics as AUC are useful. Before to compute the metrics, read carefully this article to understand the role of these metrics.
+
+You'll learn to train other types of Machine Learning models than linear regression and logistic regression. You're not supposed to spend time understanding the theory. I recommend to do that during the projects. Today, read the Scikit-learn documentation to have a basic understanding of the models you use. Focus on how to use correctly those Machine Learning models with Scikit-learn.
+
+You'll also learn what is a grid-search and how to use it to train your machine learning models.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: MSE Scikit-learn
+- Exercise 2: Accuracy Scikit-learn
+- Exercise 3: Regression
+- Exercise 4: Classification
+- Exercise 5: Machine Learning models
+- Exercise 6: Grid Search
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Matplotlib
+- Scikit Learn
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+_Version of Scikit Learn I used to do the exercises: 0.22_. I suggest to use the most recent one. Scikit Learn 1.0 is finally available after ... 14 years.
+
+### Resources
+
+### Metrics
+
+- https://www.kdnuggets.com/2018/06/right-metric-evaluating-machine-learning-models-2.html
+
+### Imbalance datasets
+
+- https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/260164/auc-and-class-imbalance-in-training-test-dataset
+
+### Gridsearch
+
+- https://medium.com/fintechexplained/what-is-grid-search-c01fe886ef0a
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, `matplotlib` and `scikit-learn`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: MSE Scikit-learn
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use `sklearn.metrics` to compute the mean squared error (MSE).
+
+1. Compute the MSE using `sklearn.metrics` on `y_true` and `y_pred` below:
+
+```python
+y_true = [91, 51, 2.5, 2, -5]
+y_pred = [90, 48, 2, 2, -4]
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Accuracy Scikit-learn
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use `sklearn.metrics` to compute the accuracy.
+
+1. Compute the accuracy using `sklearn.metrics` on `y_true` and `y_pred` below:
+
+```python
+y_pred = [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0]
+y_true = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0]
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Regression
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to evaluate a machine learning model using many regression metrics.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Import California Housing data set and split it in a train set and a test set (10%). Fit a linear regression on the data set. _The goal is focus on the metrics, that is why the code to fit the Linear Regression is given._
+
+```python
+# imports
+from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
+from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
+from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
+from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
+from sklearn.impute import SimpleImputer
+from sklearn.pipeline import Pipeline
+# data
+housing = fetch_california_housing()
+X, y = housing['data'], housing['target']
+# split data train test
+X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X,
+                                                    y,
+                                                    test_size=0.1,
+                                                    shuffle=True,
+                                                    random_state=13)
+# pipeline
+pipeline = [('imputer', SimpleImputer(strategy='median')),
+            ('scaler', StandardScaler()),
+            ('lr', LinearRegression())]
+pipe = Pipeline(pipeline)
+# fit
+pipe.fit(X_train, y_train)
+```
+
+1. Predict on the train set and test set
+
+2. Compute R2, Mean Square Error, Mean Absolute Error on both train and test set
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Classification
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to evaluate a machine learning model using many classification metrics.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Import Breast Cancer data set and split it in a train set and a test set (20%). Fit a logistic regression on the data set. _The goal is focus on the metrics, that is why the code to fit the logistic Regression is given._
+
+```python
+from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
+from sklearn.datasets import load_breast_cancer
+from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
+from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
+
+X , y = load_breast_cancer(return_X_y=True)
+X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(
+    X, y, test_size=0.20)
+scaler = StandardScaler()
+X_train_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X_train)
+classifier = LogisticRegression()
+classifier.fit(X_train_scaled, y_train)
+```
+
+1. Predict on the train set and test set
+
+2. Compute F1, accuracy, precision, recall, roc_auc scores on the train set and test set. Print the confusion matrix on the test set results.
+
+**Note: AUC can only be computed on probabilities, not on classes.**
+
+3. Plot the AUC curve for on the test set using roc_curve of scikit learn. There many ways to create this plot. It should look like this:
+
+![alt text][logo_ex4]
+
+[logo_ex4]: ./w2_day4_ex4_q3.png "ROC AUC "
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.metrics.plot_roc_curve.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Machine Learning models
+
+The goal of this exercise is to have an overview of the existing Machine Learning models and to learn to call them from scikit learn.
+We will focus on:
+
+- SVM/SVC
+- Decision Tree
+- Random Forest (Ensemble learning)
+- Gradient Boosting (Ensemble learning, Boosting techniques)
+
+All these algorithms exist in two versions: regression and classification. Even if the logic is similar in both classification and regression, the loss function is specific to each case.
+
+It is really easy to get lost among all the existing algorithms. This article is very useful to have a clear overview of the models and to understand which algorithm use and when. https://towardsdatascience.com/how-to-choose-the-right-machine-learning-algorithm-for-your-application-1e36c32400b9
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Import California Housing data set and split it in a train set and a test set (10%). Fit a linear regression on the data set. _The goal is to focus on the metrics, that is why the code to fit the Linear Regression is given._
+
+```python
+# imports
+from sklearn.datasets import fetch_california_housing
+from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
+from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
+from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
+from sklearn.impute import SimpleImputer
+from sklearn.pipeline import Pipeline
+# data
+housing = fetch_california_housing()
+X, y = housing['data'], housing['target']
+# split data train test
+X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X,
+                                                    y,
+                                                    test_size=0.1,
+                                                    shuffle=True,
+                                                    random_state=43)
+# pipeline
+pipeline = [('imputer', SimpleImputer(strategy='median')),
+            ('scaler', StandardScaler()),
+            ('lr', LinearRegression())]
+pipe = Pipeline(pipeline)
+# fit
+pipe.fit(X_train, y_train)
+
+```
+
+1. Create 5 pipelines with 5 different models as final estimator (keep the imputer and scaler unchanged):
+   1. Linear Regression
+   2. SVM
+   3. Decision Tree (set `random_state=43`)
+   4. Random Forest (set `random_state=43`)
+   5. Gradient Boosting (set `random_state=43`)
+
+Take time to have basic understanding of the role of the basic hyperparameter and their default value.
+
+- For each algorithm, print the R2, MSE and MAE on both train set and test set.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Grid Search
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn how to make an exhaustive search over specified parameter values for an estimator. This is very useful because the hyperparameter which are the parameters of the model impact the performance of the model.
+
+The scikit learn object that runs the Grid Search is called GridSearchCV. We will learn tomorrow about the cross validation. For now, let us set the parameter **cv** to `[(np.arange(18576), np.arange(18576,20640))]`.
+This means that GridSearchCV splits the data set in a train and test set.
+
+Preliminary:
+
+- Load the California Housing data set. As precised, this time, there's no need to split the data set in train set and test set since GridSearchCV does it.
+
+You will have to run a Grid Search on the Random Forest on at least the hyperparameter that are mentioned below. It doesn't mean these are the only hyperparameter of the model. If possible, try at least 3 different values for each hyperparameter.
+
+1. Run a Grid Search with `n_jobs` set to `-1` to parallelize the computations on all CPUs. The hyperparameter to change are: n_estimators, max_depth, min_samples_leaf. It may take
+
+Now, let us analyse the grid search's results in order to select the best model.
+
+2. Write a function that takes as input the Grid Search object and that returns the best model **fitted**, the best set of hyperparameter and the associated score:
+
+   ```python
+   def select_model_verbose(gs):
+
+       return trained_model, best_params, best_score
+   ```
+
+3. Use the trained model to predict on a new point:
+
+```python
+new_point = np.array([[3.2031, 52., 5.47761194, 1.07960199, 910., 2.26368159, 37.85, -122.26]])
+```
+
+How do we know the best model returned by GridSearchCV is good enough and stable ? That is what we will learn tomorrow !
+
+**WARNING: Some combinations of hyper parameters are not possible. For example using the SVM, the kernel linear has no parameter gamma.**
+
+**Note**:
+
+- GridSearchCV can also take a Pipeline instead of a Machine Learning model. It is useful to combine some Imputers or Dimension reduction techniques with some Machine Learning models in the same Pipeline.
+- It may be useful to check on Kaggle if some Kagglers share their Grid Searches.
+
+Ressources:
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.model_selection.GridSearchCV.html
+
+- https://stackoverflow.com/questions/38555650/try-multiple-estimator-in-one-grid-search
+
+- https://medium.com/fintechexplained/what-is-grid-search-c01fe886ef0a
+
+- https://elutins.medium.com/grid-searching-in-machine-learning-quick-explanation-and-python-implementation-550552200596
+
+- https://scikit-learn.org/stable/auto_examples/model_selection/plot_grid_search_digits.html

subjects/ai/train-and-evalute-machine-learning-models/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated.
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`.
+
+##### Run `python --version`.
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, `import matplotlib` and `import sklearn` run without any error?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: MSE Scikit-learn
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use `sklearn.metrics` to compute the mean squared error (MSE).
+
+1. Compute the MSE using `sklearn.metrics` on `y_true` and `y_pred` below:
+
+```python
+y_true = [91, 51, 2.5, 2, -5]
+y_pred = [90, 48, 2, 2, -4]
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Accuracy Scikit-learn
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use `sklearn.metrics` to compute the accuracy.
+
+1. Compute the accuracy using `sklearn.metrics` on `y_true` and `y_pred` below:
+
+```python
+y_pred = [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0]
+y_true = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0]
+```
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Regression
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the predictions on the train set and test set are:
+
+```console
+    #10 first values Train
+array([1.54505951, 2.21338527, 2.2636205 , 3.3258957 , 1.51710076,
+    1.63209319, 2.9265211 , 0.78080924, 1.21968217, 0.72656239])
+
+```
+
+```console
+#10 first values Test
+
+array([ 1.82212706,  1.98357668,  0.80547979, -0.19259114,  1.76072418,
+        3.27855815,  2.12056804,  1.96099917,  2.38239663,  1.21005304])
+
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the results match this output:
+
+```console
+r2 on the train set:  0.3552292936915783
+MAE on the train set:  0.5300159371615256
+MSE on the train set:  0.5210784446797679
+
+r2 on the test set:  0.30265471284464673
+MAE on the test set:  0.5454023699809112
+MSE on the test set:  0.5537420654727396
+```
+
+This result shows that the model has slightly better results on the train set than the test set. That's frequent since it is easier to get a better grade on an exam we studied than an exam that is different from what was prepared. However, the results are not good: r2 ~ 0.3. Fitting non linear models as the Random Forest on this data may improve the results. That's the goal of the exercise 5.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Classification
+
+##### The exercise is validated is all questions of the exercise are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the predictions on the train set and test set are:
+
+```console
+    # 10 first values Train
+    array([1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0])
+
+    # 10 first values Test
+    array([1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0])
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the results match this output:
+
+```console
+F1 on the train set:  0.9911504424778761
+Accuracy on the train set:  0.989010989010989
+Recall on the train set:  0.9929078014184397
+Precision on the train set:  0.9893992932862191
+ROC_AUC on the train set:  0.9990161111794368
+
+
+F1 on the test set:  0.9801324503311258
+Accuracy on the test set:  0.9736842105263158
+Recall on the test set:  0.9866666666666667
+Precision on the test set:  0.9736842105263158
+ROC_AUC on the test set:  0.9863247863247864
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the results match the confusion matrix on the test set should be:
+
+```console
+array([[37,  2],
+        [ 1, 74]])
+```
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the ROC AUC plot looks like the plot below:
+
+![alt text][logo_ex4]
+
+[logo_ex4]: ../w2_day4_ex4_q3.png "ROC AUC "
+
+Having a 99% ROC AUC is not usual. The data set we used is easy to classify. On real data sets, always check if there's any leakage while having such a high ROC AUC score.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Machine Learning models
+
+##### The question is validated if the scores outputted are close to the scores below. Some of the algorithms use random steps (random sampling used by the `RandomForest`). I used `random_state = 43` for the Random Forest, the Decision Tree and the Gradient Boosting.
+
+```console
+# Linear regression
+
+TRAIN
+r2 on the train set:  0.34823544284172625
+MAE on the train set:  0.533092001261455
+MSE on the train set:  0.5273648371379568
+
+TEST
+r2 on the test set:  0.3551785428138914
+MAE on the test set:  0.5196420310323713
+MSE on the test set:  0.49761195027083804
+
+
+# SVM
+
+TRAIN
+r2 on the train set:  0.6462366150965996
+MAE on the train set:  0.38356451633259875
+MSE on the train set:  0.33464478671339165
+
+TEST
+r2 on the test set:  0.6162644671183826
+MAE on the test set:  0.3897680598426786
+MSE on the test set:  0.3477101776543003
+
+
+# Decision Tree
+
+TRAIN
+r2 on the train set:  0.9999999999999488
+MAE on the train set:  1.3685733933909677e-08
+MSE on the train set:  6.842866883530944e-14
+
+TEST
+r2 on the test set:  0.6263651902480918
+MAE on the test set:  0.4383758696244002
+MSE on the test set:  0.4727017198871596
+
+
+# Random Forest
+
+TRAIN
+r2 on the train set:  0.9705418471542886
+MAE on the train set:  0.11983836612191189
+MSE on the train set:  0.034538356420577995
+
+TEST
+r2 on the test set:  0.7504673649554309
+MAE on the test set:  0.31889891600404635
+MSE on the test set:  0.24096164834441108
+
+
+# Gradient Boosting
+
+TRAIN
+r2 on the train set:  0.7395782392433273
+MAE on the train set:  0.35656543036682264
+MSE on the train set:  0.26167490389525294
+
+TEST
+r2 on the test set:  0.7157456298013534
+MAE on the test set:  0.36455447680396397
+MSE on the test set:  0.27058170064218096
+
+```
+
+It is important to notice that the Decision Tree overfits very easily. It learns easily the training data but is not able to extrapolate on the test set. This algorithm is not used a lot because of its overfitting ability.
+
+However, Random Forest and Gradient Boosting propose a solid approach to correct the overfitting (in that case the parameters `max_depth` is set to None that is why the Random Forest overfits the data). These two algorithms are used intensively in Machine Learning Projects.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Grid Search
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The question 1 is validated if the code that runs the `gridsearch` is (the parameters may change):
+
+```python
+parameters = {'n_estimators':[10, 50, 75],
+            'max_depth':[3,5,7],
+            'min_samples_leaf': [10,20,30]}
+
+rf = RandomForestRegressor()
+gridsearch = GridSearchCV(rf,
+                        parameters,
+                        cv = [(np.arange(18576), np.arange(18576,20640))],
+                        n_jobs=-1)
+gridsearch.fit(X, y)
+```
+
+##### The question 2 is validated if the function is:
+
+```python
+def select_model_verbose(gs):
+
+    return gs.best_estimator_, gs.best_params_, gs.best_score_
+```
+
+In my case, the `gridsearch` parameters are not interesting. Even if I reduced the over-fitting of the Random Forest, the score on the test is lower than the score on the test returned by the Gradient Boosting in the previous exercise without optimal parameters search.
+
+##### The question 3 is validated if the code used is:
+
+```python
+model, best_params, best_score = select_model_verbose(gridsearch)
+model.predict(new_point)
+```

subjects/ai/visualizations/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,271 @@
+# Visualizations
+
+While working on a dataset it is important to check the distribution of the data. Obviously, for most of humans it is difficult to visualize the data in more than 3 dimensions
+
+"Viz" is important to understand the data and to show results. We'll discover three libraries to visualize data in Python. These are one of the most used visualisation "libraries" in Python:
+
+- Pandas visualization module
+- Matplotlib
+- Plotly
+
+The goal is to understand the basics of those libraries. You'll have time during the project to master one (or the three) of them.
+You may wonder why using one library is not enough. The reason is simple: it depends on the usage.
+For example if you want to check the data quickly you may want to use Pandas viz module or Matplotlib.
+If you want to plot a custom and more elaborated plot I suggest to use Matplotlib or Plotly.
+And, if you want to create a very nice and interactive plot I suggest to use Plotly.
+
+### Exercises of the day
+
+- Exercice 0: Environment and libraries
+- Exercise 1: Pandas plot 1
+- Exercise 2: Pandas plot 2
+- Exercise 3: Matplotlib 1
+- Exercise 4: Matplotlib 2
+- Exercise 5: Matplotlib subplots
+- Exercise 6: Plotly 1
+- Exercise 7: Plotly Box plots
+
+### Virtual Environment
+
+- Python 3.x
+- NumPy
+- Pandas
+- Matplotlib
+- Plotly
+- Jupyter or JupyterLab
+
+I suggest to use the most recent version of the packages.
+
+### Resources
+
+- https://matplotlib.org/3.3.3/tutorials/index.html
+- https://towardsdatascience.com/matplotlib-tutorial-learn-basics-of-pythons-powerful-plotting-library-b5d1b8f67596
+
+- https://github.com/rougier/matplotlib-tutorial
+- https://jakevdp.github.io/PythonDataScienceHandbook/05.13-kernel-density-estimation.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+The goal of this exercise is to set up the Python work environment with the required libraries.
+
+**Note:** For each quest, your first exercice will be to set up the virtual environment with the required libraries.
+
+I recommend to use:
+
+- the **last stable versions** of Python.
+- the virtual environment you're the most confortable with. `virtualenv` and `conda` are the most used in Data Science.
+- one of the most recents versions of the libraries required
+
+1. Create a virtual environment named `ex00`, with a version of Python >= `3.8`, with the following libraries: `pandas`, `numpy`, `jupyter`, `matplotlib` and `plotly`.
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 1: Pandas plot 1
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to create plots with use Pandas. Panda's `.plot()` is a wrapper for `matplotlib.pyplot.plot()`.
+
+Here is the data we will be using:
+
+```python
+        df = pd.DataFrame({
+        'name':['christopher','marion','maria','mia','clement','randy','remi'],
+        'age':[70,30,22,19,45,33,20],
+        'gender':['M','F','F','F','M','M','M'],
+        'state':['california','dc','california','dc','california','new york','porto'],
+        'num_children':[2,0,0,3,8,1,4],
+        'num_pets':[5,1,0,5,2,2,3]
+        })
+```
+
+1. Reproduce this plot. This plot is called a bar plot.
+
+![alt text][logo]
+
+[logo]: ./w1day03_ex1_plot1.png "Bar plot ex1"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- the title
+- name on x-axis
+- legend
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 2: Pandas plot 2
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to create plots with use Pandas. Panda's `.plot()` is a wrapper for `matplotlib.pyplot.plot()`.
+
+```python
+        df = pd.DataFrame({
+        'name':['christopher','marion','maria','mia','clement','randy','remi'],
+        'age':[70,30,22,19,45,33,20],
+        'gender':['M','F','F','F','M','M','M'],
+        'state':['california','dc','california','dc','california','new york','porto'],
+        'num_children':[4,2,1,0,3,1,0],
+        'num_pets':[5,1,0,2,2,2,3]
+        })
+```
+
+1. Reproduce this plot. This plot is called a scatter plot. Do you observe a relationship between the age and the number of children ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex2]
+
+[logo_ex2]: ./w1day03_ex2_plot1.png "Scatter plot ex2"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- the title
+- name on x-axis
+- name on y-axis
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 3: Matplotlib 1
+
+The goal of this plot is to learn to use Matplotlib to plot data. As you know, Matplotlib is the underlying library used by Pandas. It provides more options to plot custom visualizations. Howerver, most of the plots we will create with Matplotlib can be reproduced with Pandas' `.plot()`.
+
+1. Reproduce this plot. We assume the data points have integers coordinates.
+
+![alt text][logo_ex3]
+
+[logo_ex3]: ./w1day03_ex3_plot1.png "Scatter plot ex3"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- the title
+- name on x-axis and y-axis
+- x-axis and y-axis are limited to [1,8]
+- **style**:
+  - red dashdot line with a width of 3
+  - blue circles with a size of 12
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 4: Matplotlib 2
+
+The goal of this plot is to learn to use Matplotlib to plot different lines in the same plot on different axis using `twinx`. This very useful to compare variables in different ranges.
+
+Here is the data:
+
+```python
+left_data = [5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
+right_data = [0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, -1.6]
+x_axis = [0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0]
+```
+
+1. Reproduce this plot
+
+![alt text][logo_ex4]
+
+[logo_ex4]: ./w1day03_ex4_plot1.png "Twin axis plot ex4"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- the title
+- name on left y-axis and right y-axis
+- **style**:
+  - left data in black
+  - right data in red
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 5: Matplotlib subplots
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use Matplotlib to create subplots.
+
+1. Reproduce this plot using a **for loop**:
+
+![alt text][logo_ex5]
+
+[logo_ex5]: ./w1day03_ex5_plot1.png "Subplots ex5"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- 6 subplots: 2 rows, 3 columns
+- Keep space between plots: `hspace=0.5` and `wspace=0.5`
+- Each plot contains
+
+  - Text (2,3,i) centered at 0.5, 0.5. _Hint_: check the parameter `ha` of `text`
+  - a title: Title i
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 6: Plotly 1
+
+Plotly has evolved a lot in the previous years. It is important to **always check the documentation**.
+
+Plotly comes with a high level interface: Plotly Express. It helps building some complex plots easily. The lesson won't detail the complex examples. Plotly express is quite interesting while using Pandas Dataframes because there are some built-in functions that leverage Pandas Dataframes.
+
+The plot outputed by Plotly is interactive and can also be dynamic.
+
+The goal of the exercise is to plot the price of a company. Its price is generated below.
+
+```python
+returns = np.random.randn(50)
+price = 100 + np.cumsum(returns)
+
+dates = pd.date_range(start='2020-09-01', periods=50, freq='B')
+df = pd.DataFrame(zip(dates, price),
+                  columns=['Date','Company_A'])
+```
+
+1. Using **Plotly express**, reproduce the plot in the image. As the data is generated randomly I do not expect you to reproduce the same line.
+
+![alt text][logo_ex6]
+
+[logo_ex6]: ./w1day03_ex6_plot1.png "Time series ex6"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- title
+- x-axis name
+- y-axis name
+
+2. Same question but now using `plotly.graph_objects`. You may need to use `init_notebook_mode` from `plotly.offline`.
+
+https://plotly.com/python/time-series/e
+
+---
+
+---
+
+# Exercise 7: Plotly Box plots
+
+The goal of this exercise is to learn to use Plotly to plot Box Plots. It is t is a method for graphically depicting groups of numerical data through their quartiles and values as min, max. It allows to compare quickly some variables.
+
+Let us generate 3 random arrays from a normal distribution. And for each array add respectively 1, 2 to the normal distribution.
+
+```python
+y0 = np.random.randn(50)
+y1 = np.random.randn(50) + 1 # shift mean
+y2 = np.random.randn(50) + 2
+```
+
+1. Plot in the same Figure 2 box plots as shown in the image. In this exercise the style is not important.
+
+![alt text][logo_ex7]
+
+[logo_ex7]: ./w1day03_ex7_plot1.png "Box plot ex7"
+
+The plot has to contain:
+
+- the title
+- the legend
+
+https://plotly.com/python/box-plots/

subjects/ai/visualizations/audit/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,186 @@
+#### Exercise 0: Environment and libraries
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### Activate the virtual environment. If you used `conda` run `conda activate your_env`
+
+##### Run `python --version`
+
+###### Does it print `Python 3.x`? x >= 8
+
+##### Does `import jupyter`, `import numpy`, `import pandas`, `matplotlib` and `plotly` run without any error ?
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 1: Pandas plot 1
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect those criteria.
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex6]
+
+[logo_ex6]: ../w1day03_ex6_plot1.png "Time series ex6"
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image by using `plotly.graph_objects` and respect those criteria.
+
+2.This question is validated if the plot is in the image is reproduced using `plotly.graph_objects` given those criteria:
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex6]
+
+[logo_ex6]: ../w1day03_ex6_plot1.png "Time series ex6"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 2: Pandas plot 2
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect the following criteria. It is important to observe that the older people are, the the more children they have.
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex2]
+
+[logo_ex2]: ../w1day03_ex2_plot1.png "Scatter plot ex2"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 3: Matplotlib 1
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect those criteria.
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+###### Are the x-axis and y-axis limited to [1,8] ?
+
+###### Is the line a red dashdot line with a width of 3 ?
+
+###### Are the circles blue circles with a size of 12 ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex3]
+
+[logo_ex3]: ../w1day03_ex3_plot1.png "Scatter plot ex3"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 4: Matplotlib 2
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect those criteria.
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+###### Is the left data black ?
+
+###### Is the right data red ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex4]
+
+[logo_ex4]: ../w1day03_ex4_plot1.png "Twin axis ex4"
+
+https://matplotlib.org/gallery/api/two_scales.html
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 5: Matplotlib subplots
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect those criteria.
+
+###### Does it contain 6 subplots (2 rows, 3 columns)?
+
+###### Does it have space between plots (`hspace=0.5` and `wspace=0.5`)?
+
+###### Do all subplots contain a title: `Title i` ?
+
+###### Do all subplots contain a text `(2,3,i)` centered at `(0.5, 0.5)`? _Hint_: check the parameter `ha` of `text`
+
+###### Have all subplots been created in a for loop ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex5]
+
+[logo_ex5]: ../w1day03_ex5_plot1.png "Subplots ex5"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 6: Plotly 1
+
+##### The exercice is validated is all questions of the exercice are validated
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect those criteria.
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex6]
+
+[logo_ex6]: ../w1day03_ex6_plot1.png "Time series ex6"
+
+##### The solution of question 2 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image by using `plotly.graph_objects` and respect those criteria.
+
+2.This question is validated if the plot is in the image is reproduced using `plotly.graph_objects` given those criteria:
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a name on x-axis and y-axis ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex6]
+
+[logo_ex6]: ../w1day03_ex6_plot1.png "Time series ex6"
+
+---
+
+---
+
+#### Exercise 7: Plotly Box plots
+
+##### The solution of question 1 is accepted if the plot reproduces the plot in the image and respect those criteria. The code below shows a solution.
+
+###### Does it have a the title ?
+
+###### Does it have a legend ?
+
+![alt text][logo_ex7]
+
+[logo_ex7]: ../w1day03_ex7_plot1.png "Box plot ex7"
+
+```python
+import plotly.graph_objects as go
+import numpy as np
+
+y0 = np.random.randn(50)
+y1 = np.random.randn(50) + 1 # shift mean
+y2 = np.random.randn(50) + 2
+
+fig = go.Figure()
+fig.add_trace(go.Box(y=y0, name='Sample A',
+                marker_color = 'indianred'))
+fig.add_trace(go.Box(y=y1, name = 'Sample B',
+                marker_color = 'lightseagreen'))
+
+fig.show()
+```